Outbreaks of Soil-Dwelling Diptera (Insecta): Has the Phenomenon a Natural or an Anthropogenic Origin

Abstract

The data on the life-cycles of soil-dwelling Diptera which exhibit outbreaks are summarized. The main ecological parameters of the life-cycle of Diptera which may influence outbreaks are discussed: high fecundity of females, polyphagy of larvae, larval behavioral adaptations increasing their survival, tendency of adults toward synchronous emergence, and the ability of species to inhabit anthropogenic landscapes. It is shown that the potential ability of Diptera to exhibit outbreaks has natural mechanisms. Natural hazards like abrupt weather changes in the direction favorable for Diptera as well as anthropogenic influence may be additional factors provoking an outbreak.