Social governance mechanisms in China under the impact of globalization

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Introduction
Since the late 1970s, China has undergone fundamental economic transformations, shifting from a socialist model to a market-oriented economy. This transition has profoundly impacted the country’s social security system, which was previously an integral part of the socialist framework. As China integrated into the global economy, the forces of globalization increasingly influenced the reform of its social policies.
Prior to the reforms, the urban social security system was closely intertwined with the economic structure of state-owned enterprises (SOEs). SOEs served as the foundation of China’s socialist economy, engaging in economic production while simultaneously providing social protection. The government exercised centralized control over economic activities and distributed social benefits through these state-owned enterprises.
In contrast, rural areas relied on collective organizations, where farmers jointly owned agricultural land, which served as the basis for both economic production and social security. These collective structures played a vital role in ensuring the welfare of rural communities.
The shift toward a market economy and the growing influence of globalization necessitated significant adjustments in China’s social governance mechanisms. The dismantling of the traditional SOE system and the transition to individual responsibility for economic well-being introduced new challenges in social security provision. Furthermore, the influx of global capital, technology, and ideas further complicated China’s social governance landscape.
The mechanisms China employs to address these challenges include reforms in healthcare, education, pension systems, and unemployment benefits. An important observation is that despite China’s relatively low level of economic development prior to the reforms, the pre-reform social security system evidently provided essential protection for the population. Specifically, measures ensuring basic subsistence effectively prevented mass starvation and promoted primary education, laying the foundation for future human capital development.
Following the initiation of economic reforms in the late 1970s, the Chinese government implemented targeted reform policies tailored to the distinct conditions of urban and rural areas, acknowledging the structural differences inherent in these societal domains.

Methods and criteria for selecting literature sources
The pre-reform social governance system in China evolved within a unique political and socio-economic context shaped by several key factors.
First, its ideological orientation was firmly rooted in the socialist agenda, emphasizing equality and social justice while promoting a collective approach to both economic and social life. Socialist ideology required the government to assume primary, if not total, responsibility for citizens' social protection, shielding them from adverse social consequences such as hunger and poverty. The government’s commitment extended to various forms of social security and assistance for vulnerable individuals, reflecting a comprehensive dedication to welfare provision. As noted by X. Guan, China’s social policy during this period aimed to establish a "developmental welfare state," where the state played a central role in delivering social services (Guan, 2005).
Second, this commitment was politically institutionalized as a paramount imperative of the Communist Party and the socialist government. Particularly during the Cold War, amid ideological and political competition between capitalist and communist blocs, the social security system served as a tool to demonstrate the purported superiority of the communist regime in guaranteeing a minimum standard of living for its population, thereby reinforcing its legitimacy. E. Laurent emphasizes that during the Cold War, social welfare was a key element of the ideological struggle between the two blocs (Laurent, 2020).
Third, the socialist model of economic development that prevailed during this period significantly influenced the structure and functioning of the social security system. State-owned enterprises (SOEs) were the primary drivers of China’s industrialization program, with economic activities being centrally planned and controlled by the government. Consequently, for SOE employees, both wages and social benefits were subject to centralized planning and regulation, further reinforcing the state’s role as the main provider of social security. This centralized control ensured a certain degree of uniformity and comprehensiveness in welfare provision, albeit within the constraints imposed by the prevailing economic model. As noted by O.A. Dambaeva and V.S. Morozova, China’s pre-reform social governance model was characterized by centralization and extensive state control (Dambaeva & Morozova, 2013).
Under the pre-reform system, employment and social security were so closely intertwined as to be practically inseparable. State employees received relatively low wages, which were nevertheless compensated by a comprehensive package of social benefits, ensuring a degree of economic security despite modest earnings.
In rural areas, the organizational structure of the people’s commune–a collective farming entity–played a pivotal role. Membership in the commune, which encompassed nearly all farmers, guaranteed equal access to collectively owned agricultural land, effectively providing a subsistence-level safety net for all community members. Moreover, this collective economic foundation facilitated the development of certain universal social services, particularly basic education and healthcare, alongside the establishment of a rural social assistance system. A.G. Runova analyzes China’s social governance model and emphasizes the significance of collective farming structures during the pre-reform period (Runova, 2020).
Beyond these formal structures, the Chinese government also placed considerable emphasis on the role of family and kinship networks in supporting those unable to participate actively in economic activities. Consequently, access to social benefits provided by collective organizations was primarily restricted to individuals lacking family support, such as elderly people living alone, underscoring the importance of familial assistance within the broader social security framework. This reliance on family and kinship ties served as a complement to the formal welfare system, highlighting the interplay between institutional and informal mechanisms of social support. As argued by L.S. Veselova, P.P. Deryugin, and L.A. Lebedintseva, Chinese sociology has consistently emphasized the role of family and traditional values in the social organization of society (Veselova, Deryugin, & Lebedintseva, 2018).
Identifying Key Social Governance Mechanisms in Contemporary Chinaю In the context of China’s governance modernization, the objective of social governance is to establish a mechanism based on government-citizen collaboration in decision-making on matters of national importance. This mechanism is designed to foster and strengthen public trust while cultivating a sense of civic responsibility, thereby maximizing societal interests and raising collective consciousness. As M. Wang notes, the modernization of social governance in China aims to build a "harmonious socialist society" in which the interests of the state and the people align (Wang, 2018).
Increasing the participation of the people and society in the management of public affairs helps to strengthen trust and cooperation between people and society, as well as between society and Government. In other words, social management should activate the enthusiasm and initiative of people and society, creating conditions for the full realization of innovative potential and social viability. It is important to involve everyone in the network of social cooperation, while strengthening the support, trust and interaction of the people with the party and the government to increase the effectiveness and potential of public administration in general. Y. Ding, 2018) emphasizes the importance of "Xi Jinping's thought on socialism with Chinese characteristics in a new era" for the development of modern social governance (Ding 2018). Q. Ma and H. Zhou explores the concept of "co-construction, co-management and co-use" in social management, which involves broad public participation in the management of public affairs (Ma 2018; Zhou 2016).
However, it should be noted that the practice and theory of modern management in China are at an early stage of development. Guo S. and Jiang, T. note that China is moving from "social control" to "social governance", which requires new approaches and mechanisms (Guo, Jiang 2017). H. Snape also emphasizes the importance of analyzing the discourse of the party and the government to understand changes in social governance (Snape 2019). J. Tang points out The need to separate the functions of government and society for effective social governance (Tang 2015). J. Yan explores the theoretical foundations and practical innovations in Chinese social management (Yan 2017). H. Zhou examines social management in the context of management reform in China (Zhou 2018).
To successfully implement new approaches, China creates and adapts various social management mechanisms designed to ensure the effective functioning of society in the context of modernization. Table 1 shows the main social governance mechanisms in China.
China's social governance mechanism continues to evolve and adapt to new challenges in the context of globalization. In recent years, the country has witnessed a growing number of localized mass protests, reflecting social tensions that typically stem not from dissatisfaction with the central government, but rather from specific practices and policies implemented by local authorities. These protests often reveal discrepancies between citizens and local governments, highlighting the need for effective social conflict management.
In this context, the report of the 17th CPC National Congress proposed a potential solution by advocating for the establishment of procedures and mechanisms grounded in democratic principles and the rule of law (Ding, 2018). The implementation of social governance practices, the promotion of self-governance, the protection of civil rights, and the inclusion of all relevant societal stakeholders in governance processes are expected to help prevent or resolve many emerging issues.
When social conflicts arise, both the government and involved parties can refer to pre-established agreements to address disputes. This approach reduces the likelihood of protests being directly targeted at the government, as conflict resolution rules and mechanisms are developed through multi-stakeholder consensus based on democratic and legal principles. Crucially, in such a system, those who violate established rules are held accountable for their actions and face appropriate consequences, whether legal or financial.
Thus, the creation of transparent and democratic social governance mechanisms can contribute to mitigating social tensions and enhancing societal stability (Snape, 2019). This framework not only facilitates orderly conflict resolution but also reinforces public trust in institutional processes, ultimately supporting China's broader goals of maintaining social harmony amid rapid socioeconomic transformation.
Significant changes took place at the 18th Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC). The third Plenum of the CPC Central Committee of the 18th convocation included the concepts of "democracy" and "rule of law" among the core values of Chinese socialism and set the goal of modernizing the public administration system and the potential of public administration. This has led to the formation of a new management concept, which is not a simple change in terminology, but rather a significant conceptual transformation. New ideas such as "rule of law governance," "constitution-based governance," and "rule of law society" were further developed at the fourth plenum of the CPC Central Committee of the 18th convocation, marking the beginning of a "new normal" in the Xi Jinping era (Wang 2018).
In the context of the transition to a governance model in China, the fundamental goal of social governance is to transform from social control to social governance based on democracy and the rule of law, as well as pluralistic cooperation between the state and society. Modern public administration or good governance is aimed at improving the efficiency and quality of public services; social governance, on the contrary, is designed to create an open, free, democratic, equitable, just and modern society in which every citizen (and not the elected) has freedoms and the right to strive for happiness, having the appropriate opportunities for this.
The peculiarity of social management in China is not so much the implementation of social control or maintaining stability by any means, as the creation of conditions for the comprehensive development of the individual and society. It is supposed to encourage and trust citizens, stimulate their sense of responsibility for society and public affairs, strengthen their social and civic consciousness, as well as enhance their participation in public life. The main thing is to promote trust and cooperation between the state and society, which creates the basis for harmonious development.
Social governance, therefore, should stimulate the vitality and innovation of people and society by involving them in a network of social cooperation and strengthening people's support, trust and cooperation with the government. Encouraging the participation of the public and society in public affairs is aimed at increasing the potential of public administration, which, in turn, contributes to improving the quality of life of citizens.
At the same time, the Government must adhere to the rule of law and regulate the exercise of power, public order, participation in public life, and law-based governance. The subsequent improvement of the potential of public administration and the provision of better and more efficient public services, as well as the promotion and improvement of the ability of society to self-government, are aimed at achieving long-term stability of the State and society. 

Results and conclusions
Social governance in China in the context of globalization is aimed at creating a harmonious and prosperous society where every citizen can realize their potential, and the state ensures stability and development based on the principles of democracy and the rule of law. In the context of globalization, the transformation of traditional social control mechanisms into modern models of social governance in China determines the need for a comprehensive reassessment and modification of the fundamental concepts, methods and tools used by the party and the government in this area. The evolution of social management, first of all, involves the rejection of outdated paradigms and stereotypes of thinking inherent in traditional social control. At the same time, rethinking and updating of social management systems and models is required, with an emphasis on legitimizing and standardizing the relevant processes. In this regard, the analysis of socio-cultural factors influencing social governance in China is becoming key to understanding the country's development prospects. The following is table 2, which systematizes the main socio-cultural factors influencing social governance in China (Laurent 2020).
The presented table illustrates the diversity of sociocultural factors that significantly influence China's social governance system. The analysis of these factors reveals both traditional foundations shaping a unique governance model and contemporary trends driven by globalization and modernization processes in Chinese society.
The collectivist structure of social relations plays a pivotal role in shaping state social policy, where prioritizing public interests over individual ones facilitates the implementation of large-scale projects and the achievement of social stability. A manifestation of this factor is the "danwei" (work unit) system, which underscores the importance of labor collectives in social organization. Hierarchical principles permeating all levels of social relations - from family ties to state structures - foster respect for authority and compliance with superiors. This finds expression in Confucian ethics and the state governance system. Family networks, traditionally crucial in Chinese society, present a dual dynamic: they may enhance social mobility and economic development (e.g., through "guanxi" practices) while simultaneously creating risks of nepotism and corruption (Savchenko & Kremnyov, 2023).
Civic engagement, including participation in public organizations and volunteer activities, indicates the development of civil society in China. The work of organizations like the All-China Women's Federation and All-China Federation of Trade Unions facilitates the representation of diverse social groups' interests and citizen participation in governance. The growth of volunteer movements, particularly during natural disasters and social crises, demonstrates Chinese society's capacity for self-organization and mutual assistance. This phenomenon reflects both traditional values of community solidarity and modern approaches to social governance.
Education and National Culture in China's Social Governance System is rooted in centuries-old traditions, education and national culture play a fundamental role in shaping value systems and social behavior in China. Confucianism, with its reverence for education, respect for knowledge, and moral principles, has profoundly influenced China's approach to social governance. Traditional arts and literature, reflecting cultural values and ideals, contribute to aesthetic cultivation and spiritual development. Patriotism, as a crucial element of national identity, fosters social cohesion and support for state policies.
Traditional Values and Social Stability. Social traditions and moral norms - including the celebration of traditional festivals, respect for labor, modesty, collectivism, harmony, and justice - form a value system that permeates state ideology and social policy. Adherence to ethical principles such as honesty, integrity, and responsibility serves as a critical factor in maintaining social stability and effective governance. Work Ethic and Economic Development
Lifestyle patterns and work attitudes characterized by diligence, frugality, and professional responsibility contribute significantly to China's economic progress and social welfare. The cultural emphasis on labor, high productivity, and efficient resource utilization has been instrumental in China's contemporary global success.
Challenges of Modernization. Despite these achievements, globalization and domestic societal transformation present new challenges requiring modernization of China's social governance framework. One key modernization direction involves enhancing citizen participation in political processes by:
1.    Guaranteeing access to information
2.    Facilitating engagement in policy deliberation and decision-making
3.    Strengthening public oversight in social policy formulation and implementation
This evolutionary approach seeks to balance traditional cultural foundations with contemporary governance demands, maintaining social stability while adapting to changing socioeconomic conditions.
An analysis of the concept and practice of social management in China during the reign of Hu Jintao demonstrates that, despite some successes, this model largely retained the features of traditional social control, where the dominant role was assigned to the state. The priorities declared at that time were to ensure stability and harmony in society, which, in fact, amounted to attempts to control potential factors of instability and neutralize disharmonious phenomena. However, such an approach based on the application of temporary solutions is not capable of ensuring long-term peace and sustainable development of society (Runova 2020).
It should be noted that in the period of globalization, China is facing new challenges and threats that require an adequate transformation of the social management system. In this regard, there is a need to develop and implement new, more effective mechanisms that can ensure a balance between the interests of the state and society, as well as create conditions for sustainable development of the country in a dynamically changing world.
Characterized by the increasing complexity of social contradictions and challenges, the 20th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, held in October 2022, adopted a number of strategically important resolutions aimed at improving the social management system. The innovation was the concept of social governance based on the principle of unification of power, which implies an integrated approach to government, combining centralized leadership with the principles of the rule of law.
According to this concept, the Chinese Communist Party carries out comprehensive governance of the country in accordance with the law, striving to build a State governed by the rule of law, where legality and justice are fundamental principles.
Governance based on the rule of law and centralization is seen as a profound revolution in the public administration system, as it ensures effective leadership of the country, promotes its prosperity, guarantees a peaceful and happy life for the people, and creates conditions for the long-term stability of the party and the state.

Conslusion
China attaches particular importance to enhancing the role of the rule of law in strengthening the fundamental foundations of the State, stabilizing public expectations and ensuring the long-term interests of society. It emphasizes the need to follow the path of the socialist rule of law with Chinese characteristics, the formation of a socialist system of the rule of law with Chinese characteristics and the creation of a socialist rule of law state that will guarantee justice in society and promote the governance of the country in accordance with the law.
China strives to build a State governed by the rule of law, a Government governed by the rule of law, and a society governed by the rule of law, which involves creating an effective legal regulation system, ensuring strict enforcement of laws, and fostering a legal culture in society. Within the framework of this approach, special attention is paid to the comprehensive development of scientific legislation, strict law enforcement, a fair judicial system, law-abiding of all citizens and strengthening the rule of law in all spheres of state life.
Thus, the decisions taken regarding social governance reflect the country's desire to modernize the public administration system, strengthen the rule of law and ensure stable development in the context of globalization.

About the authors

Юньхуэй Чжао

Author for correspondence.
Email: 462010@qq.com
ORCID iD: 0009-0008-9118-7355

Intern at the Department of Social Technologies, Faculty of Sociology

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2. Table 1 Basic social governance mechanisms in China

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3. Table 2 Socio-cultural factors influencing social governance in China

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