Gender features of ressentiment among university students

全文:

Introduction

The analysis of the sources shows that until now, issues related to the gender characteristics¹  of ressentiment, including students’ environment, have not received proper scientific coverage. Relationships between the following constructs of ressentiment in gender projections have not been traced: shame and guilt, resentment and aggressiveness, anger and revenge, anxiety and vulnerability, rancor and hostility, rigidity and lability, tolerance and intolerance, and others. Optimal psychological and pedagogical technologies for reducing the level of ressentiment among university students are not presented, taking into account the gender factor.

The purpose of this work is a theoretical and empirical study of the ressentiment constructs characteristic for university students such as: resentment, revenge, envy, jealousy and aggression, as well as fixing the degree of their manifestation and relationship in the optics of the gender dimension.

When comprehending the intention of the proposed study, we proceeded from the following assumption: such constructs of ressentiment as resentment, revenge and jealousy may be more pronounced among female students than among male students. And for male students, such components of resentment as envy and aggression will be more prominently represented.

According to the established philosophical and psychological approaches, ressentiment is characterized as a complex of various experiences interaction and is described in the constructs of resentment, envy, jealousy, aggression and revenge [1]. All of these components of ressentiment are studied in the psychology of emotions. Depending on the level of the declared constructs expression, the degree of ressentiment manifestation in the personality structure is assessed [2]. Ressentiment is characterized by negative feedback with the experience of empathy and inability to forgive; it is a reaction to resentment, indifference or indifferent neglect² .

Some authors believe that manifestations of ressentiment among young people arise as a result of a systematic prohibition that gives rise to a tendency to certain value illusions and juggling of assessments and judgments³  [3]. There is a conscious displacement of inaccessible values, a need to reformat the focus of the world perception is born, and authentic moral judgments cannot be based on ressentiment, as only false assessments that grow out of value illusions and the orientation of actions, life activity characteristic for them are built on it.

At present, a point of view is widespread in deviantology, according to which adolescents and young people, in particular, university students, who are prone to manifestations of ressentiment, are characterized by resentment, aggressiveness, vindictiveness, jealousy and envy.

In the absence of proper corrective attention to the destructive activity of university students, the constructs of ressentiment are fixed in their minds and progress, acquiring a pronounced character.

The data obtained contribute to the development of scientific ideas about the ressentiment determination in the student environment and the gender characteristics of its manifestation, enrich the psychological and pedagogical knowledge with the methodology for identifying the functional constructs of ressentiment as a destructive form of protecting an individual in an alienated reality. The materials of the article can be useful to specialists in the field of social psychology, preventive pedagogy, deviantology, genderology, enriching them with an understanding of the mechanisms of formation of resentment and gender specificity of its manifestation in the student environment.

 Literature Review

The problem of ressentiment as a combination of envy, resentment, jealousy, aggression and revenge in the framework of Russian psychological discourse has not been as an autonomous one. The works of domestic scientists were devoted to individual components of ressentiment.

Analyzing vindictive behavior, S. A. Zavrazhin and M. M. Fomina presented theoretical results of studying the genesis of the problematization of vindictive activity in a pedagogical format, as well as empirically investigated the features of vindictiveness of adolescents at social risk. The authors clarified the determination of their vindictive activity, as well as the methodology for identifying destructive forms of justice formation in the younger generation [4]. The theoretical study of revenge as a socio-psychological phenomenon and a subject-object form of interaction was considered by L. I. Ryumshina and O. B. Telesnina, indicating the remoteness of retaliatory actions from the moment of insulting the subject to the act of revenge. The revealed distinctive features of revenge (an unconstructive form of interaction, a desire to respond to an insult, remoteness in time, justice from the position of the avenger) play an important role in providing individual psychological assistance and resolving group conflicts [5].

In the theoretical study of aggression, T. N. Banshchikova, relying on a constructivist approach, defined its concept, the boundaries of which are dynamic and conditioned by the context of studying the phenomenon itself. Based on the personal and professional development of the individual, four types of aggression were identified. Aggressive behavior is characterized as a form of activity, which is one of the strategies for achieving the goal. One of the problems that the author faced when studying aggression was the traditional identification of it with such concepts as “anger”, “cruelty” or “hostility”, which is incorrect in the psychological and pedagogical context [6]. S. A. Belicheva characterizes the desire for aggressive forms of behavior as a predictor of antisocial behavior and maladaptation of minors⁴ . In V. G. Petrov’s dissertation research, the influence of biological and social factors on the psychological characteristics of aggressive behavior is traced, and the types and forms of its manifestation are determined. In the authorʼs opinion, the question of aggression expressed in the fantasies, thoughts and dreams of an individual remains open⁵ . In the work of L. M. Semenyuk describes age, gender and social differences in the manifestation of adolescent aggression, suggests a typology of aggressive behavior and effective psychological and pedagogical conditions for its correction. According to the author, the problem of inconsistency between various theoretical models of aggression and the real psychological causes of its occurrence in the adolescent population hinders the development of effective preventive means⁶. T. M. Maslova tried to establish the relationship between communicative tolerance and aggressiveness among university students. The correlation analysis carried out by her showed that the lower the coefficient of communicative tolerance, the higher the level of student aggression [7].

Analyzing the nature of the emergence of resentment, A. V. Beltyukova presented the mechanisms of its formation from the point of view of various psychological approaches, emphasizing that resentment negatively affects interpersonal contacts. The starting point for the formation of resentment is the violation of the childʼs relationship with parents [8]. The theoretical study of the psychology of resentment by Y. V. Pechin focuses on the small number of specialized scientific studies in the field of the psychology of resentment, the lack of philosophical and religious approaches to understanding its nature [9]. Theoretical and empirical study of resentment as a form of reaction to the manifestation of aggression in communication was carried out by E. S. Tsareva. She characterizes resentment as a disjunctive feeling, potentially leading to neurotic personality [10]. A theoretical and empirical study of the psychological and behavioral characteristics of boys and girls with the manifestation of resentment reactions, undertaken by S. V. Chermyanin, A. G. Maklakov and I. A. Roznova, aims to show the presence and severity of feelings of resentment among young people in an educational institution. It has been experimentally established that the main forms of psychological defense in the reaction of resentment are irrational tools – “denial”, “reactive formations” and “displacement”, the presence of which must be taken into account when carrying out correction and rehabilitation [11].

The study of jealousy, carried out by A. V. Sergeeva, is devoted to the systematization of domestic and foreign experience of psychological study of this phenomenon. The classification of types of jealousy is presented, as well as the results of an empirical study of the individual characteristics of students experiencing jealousy experiences [12]. Theoretical and empirical study of G.M. Breslav. The study of jealousy in partnerships is focused on clarifying the relationships between feelings of love, jealousy and satisfaction in the conditions of growing virtual relationships between real or potential partners, as well as experimental validation of the Russian and Latvian versions of the methodology for measuring jealousy among men and women. The author draws attention to the weak knowledge of the phenomenon of jealousy and its psychological variables, the insufficiency of modern valid methods of measuring jealousy in partner relationships [13]. Analyzing jealousy and revenge as accompanying elements of the motivation of a murder committed in a state of passion, A. A. Sergeeva explains that not only the behavior of the victim, but also the emotional sphere of consciousness of the perpetrator, characterized by a state of jealousy or revenge, forms an affected intent. The separation of situations in which the motive of jealousy and the motive of revenge acquire a dominant meaning, while the intent can be both spontaneous and deliberate [14]. In the work of O. G. Shchukina systematized the main socio-psychological approaches in the study of jealousy, in which its determination, psychological nature, and the possibility of reducing pathogenic effects on personality are revealed. The leading causes characterizing the appearance of jealousy in an individual have been identified and identified, which potentially contributes to overcoming psychological problems and preserving partner relationships. The problem for the author remained the question of the relationship between the specifics of socio-psychological development and the subjective perception of jealousy by a person [15].

According to the position of T. V. Beskova, in the public consciousness, envy, as one of the undesirable properties of a person, is suppressed, denied and masked. Diagnostic tools for measuring personal envy are of a limited nature, which led to the creation by the author of a methodology for the study of personal envy (MIZL), which has passed eight stages of analysis of psychometric properties [16]. Pre-accepted by N. V. Gorshenina’s analysis of envy as a moral and psychological education of a person is aimed at the theoretical study of approaches to understanding the nature of envy, its types and levels, as well as conducting its empirical study in the youth environment, taking into account constructive or destructive specifics and interrelation with other personal constructs. During the research, the author faced the problem of the lack of valid diagnostics for determining moral and psychological characteristics at various stages of age-related personality development, taking into account the constructive and destructive poles of envy⁷ . K. Muzdybaev’s theoretical and empirical research is devoted to the results of measuring the personal, cognitive and behavioral correlates of envy, as well as an attempt to create an authorʼs scale for its diagnosis [17]. The scientific and practical study of envy in the context of interpersonal relations and socio-cultural conditions was undertaken by A. V. Pilishina. Special emphasis is placed on the peculiarities of the manifestation of envy among students of universities in Russia and the Czech Republic⁸ .

The analysis of the sources has shown that attempts to comprehensively study and establish the relationship between the constructs of resentment have not been made before.

A detailed study of the phenomenon of ressentiment began with the works of S. Kierkegaard, F. Nietzsche and M. Scheler. In the light of the problem we are considering, it is interesting that M. Scheler distinguished a special type of ressentiment – female. Its core is vindictiveness as a result of the injunction to play the reactive and passive role of the object of harassment. Morals imposed by society and a high level of shame predispose women to restrain emotions and feelings⁹ . P. Sloterdijk assesses ressentiment in the youth environment as an irrational outburst of restrained youth anger, a mental and moral wound that does not heal and creates its own infinity of unrequited resentment¹⁰ . This view is confirmed by foreign [18; 19] and domestic research [1; 20; 21], arguing that uncontrolled aggressive behavior entails destructive consequences for the individual, unproductive forms of interaction and the growth of deviant actions (deviations) in the youth population.

1. V. Zlokazov emphasizes that vindictiveness and aggressiveness directed at others are justified by deformed ideas about oneself. As a result, a low self-esteem, an unhealthy resentment and the development of a personality inferiority complex [22].

American researchers B. Meltzer and G. Musolf offer the following interpretation of ressentiment: a chronic set of resentment and hostility feelings of an individual or group towards another, proceeding in a latent form. The authors draw a technical distinction between short-term and persistent resentment, focusing on its chronic course, individual or group manifestation, and the hidden nature of resentment [23].

In the opinion of E. F. Bykovskaya, under the influence of liberalization and democratization, the tendency towards ressentiment activity of the younger generation is increasing. According her opinion, the formation of the person type of national culture in the educational space is a solution to the problem of ressentiment. E. F. Bykovskaya suggests that in some cases child cruelty acts as a defensive reaction. The ban on the manifestation of negative emotions provokes the emergence of ressentiment, and justified anger, which guards the relationship, can be recognized as healthy [24].

Materials and Methods

In order to identify the constructs of ressentiment (resentment, revenge, envy, jealousy and aggression) among university students, taking into account the gender factor, we used the following methods.

1. Diagnostics of aggression – methodology “Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory” by A. Bass, A. Durkee (BDHI). Authors of the Russian-language adaptation A. A. Khvan, Yu. A. Zaitsev and Yu. A. Kuznetsova¹¹.
2. Diagnostics of resentment and revenge – “Scales of resentment and vindictiveness”, by E. P. Ilyin, P. A. Kovalev. These scales are taken from the methodology of E. P. Ilyin and P. A. Kovalev “Personal aggressiveness and conflict”¹² .
3. Diagnosis of jealousy – “Multidimensional jealousy scale”, by S. Pfeiffer, P. Wong. Authors of the Russian-language adaptation – I. A. Furmanov and A. O. Vergeychik¹³ .
4. Diagnostics of envy – “Methodology for the study of personality envy”, by T. V. Beskova (MSPE)¹⁴ .

The research base is Murom Institute (branch) of Vladimir State University named after A. G. and N. G. Stoletovs (MI VlSU). The general population of the study was 93 people. An empirical study of the ressentiment constructs was carried out on a sample of 60 respondents from March to May 2022. The target group consisted of full-time students of MI VlSU. The gender composition of the subjects is presented in an equal ratio: girls – 30 people (50%), boys – 30 people (50%). The age period for both boys and girls ranged from 18 to 22 years old: 18 years old (y. o.) – 20%; 19 years old – 30; 20 y. o. – 16.7; 21 y. o. – 20; 22 y. o. – 13.3% of the total number of respondents.

All respondents were informed about the purpose of the study and expressed their willingness (consent) to cooperate.

At the first stage of the diagnostic study, to assess the level of aggressiveness among students of different sexes, we used the Bass–Durkee questionnaire, focusing on the following scales: physical aggression, indirect aggression, irritation and verbal aggression.

The criterion of resentment and vindictiveness, which determines together the index of hostility of the individual, was identified through the questionnaire of E. P. Ilyin and P. A. Kovalev.

The level of jealousy among university students was fixed by the questionnaire of S. Pfeiffer and P. Wong, which included three scales: cognitive, emotional and behavioral.

The degree of envy was established by the questionnaire of T. V. Beskova, using two scales: envy-dislike and envy-despondency.

The statistical analysis was carried out with the help of the STATISTICA v program. 6.1.478.0.

The collection of empirical material took place on-line on the information and educational portal of MI VlSU¹⁵ .

 Results

At the second stage of the empirical study, we processed and interpreted the results of the claimed diagnostic methods.

The results of the questionnaire by A. Bass and A. Durkee showed that the average score on the scale of physical aggression is 4.87 for male students, 3.57 – for female students; on the scale of indirect aggression: 5.3 for male students, 4.47 – for female students; on the scale of irritation: 6.47 for male students, 5.23 – for female students; on the scale of resentment: 5.4 for female students, 4.07 – for male students; on the scale of suspicion: 6.13 for female students, 4.93 – for male students; on the scale of verbal aggression: 6.8 for female students, 5.97 – for male students. Statistical data are presented in Figure 1.

 

 

Fig. 1. Gender features of aggressiveness among male students and female students according
to the methodology “Buss‒Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI)”

 

 

The data of E. P. Ilyin and P. A. Kovaleva’s questionnaire, presented in Figure 2, say that the average score on the scale of resentment is 5.8 for female students, 4.4 – for male students; on the scale of vindictiveness: 5.2 for male students, 4.63 – for female students.

 

 

 

Fig. 2. Gender features of resentment and vindictiveness among male students and female students
according to the methodology “Scales of resentment and vindictiveness”

 

 

Diagnostics of jealousy manifestation among university students according to the method of S. Pfeiffer and P. Wong fixes that the average score on a cognitive scale is 18.87 for male students, 15.6 – for female students; on an emotional scale: 42.07 for female students, 34.5 – for male students; on a behavioral scale: 19.97 for female students, 15.63 – for male students. Statistical data are presented in Figure 3.

 

 

 

Fig. 3. Gender features of jealousy among male students and female students
according to the methodology “Multidimensional jealousy scale”

 

According to the results of T. V. Beskova’s methodology, shown in Figure 4, it can be seen that the average score on the envy-dislike scale is 27.83 for male students, 23.7 – for female students; on a scale of envy-despondency: 28.57 for female students, 21.63 – for male students.

 

 

 

Fig. 4. Gender features of envy among male students and female students according
to the methodology “Methodology for the study of personality envy”

 

Discussion and Conclusion

The results obtained from diagnostics of “Buss – Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI)” specify that, as it was expected, the tested male students are more prone to aggressiveness than female students are. This is evidenced by high scores in total on the scales of physical aggression, indirect aggression, irritation and verbal aggression (22.6 points for male students, 20.07 – for female students). Female students are more prone to hostility, which is the sum of the resentment and suspicion scales (11.53 points for female students, 9 – for male students).

Gender differences in the presented indicators of aggression are consistent with earlier studies by American psychologists R. Baron and D. Richardson¹⁶, according to which young men, showing aggressive reactions, experience less guilt and anxiety compared to girls, who are often concerned that aggression can turn against them. The female sex uses aggression as a means of expressing negative emotions and reducing stress by abreaction of destructive energy. The male sex refers to the manifestation of aggression as a tool to strengthen self-efficacy, preferred behavior for the purpose of diverse social advancement.

According to the results of the study, female students showed higher scores on scales of resentment and suspicion, which allows us to speak about their tendency to show hostility compared to male students. A correlation dependence in male students is traced between the level of aggressiveness and physical aggression (0.782; p < 0.05), indirect aggression (0.374; p < 0.05), irritation (0.827; p < 0.05) and negativism (0.374; p < 0.05). Correlations among female students were recorded between the general index of hostility and resentment (0.618; p < 0.05), as well as suspicion (0.827; p < 0.05).

The indicators of the questionnaire “Scale of resentment and vindictiveness” specify that the interviewed female students are more prone to resentment than male students are. In turn, male students have a more pronounced intention to vindictiveness in comparison with female students. The final data on the overall scale indicate an increased level of hostility among female students (10.43 points for female students, 9.6 – for male students).

The results obtained can be correlated with the previous study by Z. A. Ageeva and M. S. Gritsenko [25]. The position of these authors and ours are close by emphasizing that the gender characteristics of the resentment manifestation in girls indicate the allocation of the significance of touchiness to the subject, depending on the nature of the relationship. Presumably, this is due to the phenomenon of affiliation or the need for warm, trusting and emotionally significant relationships in women, unlike men. In addition, in girls, the identified range of specific causes that give rise to resentment is noticeably wider than in boys.

Our observations confirm the conclusion of Z. A. Ageeva and M. S. Gritsenko that gender differences are found in the level of reaction activity and the duration of experiencing the state of resentment. If girls have a strong reaction of resentment, accompanied by a shortened period of experiencing this state, then in boys a weak reaction will be associated with a prolonged experience of resentment. Traditions, cultural norms and models of male behavior dictate relative restraint in the manifestation of resentment among young men.

The conducted research allows us to agree with the opinion of E. S. Tsareva that the subject of resentment will be characterized by a high level of aggressiveness, and the object of resentment will be characterized by guilt, suspicion and hostility [10]. A correlation is observed between resentment and hostility, which is manifested among female students (0.877; p < 0.05). Male students showed a positive relationship between resentment and verbal aggression (0.408; p < 0.05), hostility (0.858; p < 0.05).

Thus, we can talk about the existing gender differences in the manifestation of resentment and reactions to insult among the subjects. Presumably, female students react to aggression from others, showing resentment in order to manipulate the feelings and behavior of the subject of aggression, starting from the specifics of relations with him. Male students, being under the influence of male behavior social stereotypes, will respond differently to the manifestation of aggression, namely, reciprocal aggression and revenge.

The obtained results of measuring vindictiveness among male students can be correlated with a previous study by Canadian psychologists A. Zdaniuk and R. Bobosel, who studied the relationship between linear individuality and the self-healing function of revenge, taking into account the gender characteristics of the vindictive behavior manifestation among undergraduate students at the Canadian University. Male students showed a higher level of vindictiveness manifestation and a positive attitude towards it, explaining such behavior by a more developed male autonomy of character, in contrast to co-dependent female. For female students, a low vindictiveness index was associated with such personality traits as compliance and conscientiousness. Among male students, a correlation between the level of self-esteem and vindictiveness was established: the more opportunities to show vindictiveness, the higher self-esteem turned out to be [26].

A similar trend in gender differences can be observed in a study by D. Chester and N. DeWall, who studied mood changes (enjoyment) from vengeful behavior among senior students at the University of Kentucky. The desire to correct one’s mood through retaliatory aggression and vindictiveness was driven by the expectation that hurting others would be pleasurable. The results obtained showed that the expected pleasure from revenge plays a motivational role in the manifestation of revengeful behavior among male students. Such a model of interaction is typical for a narcissistic personality with sadistic inclinations [27].

Summarizing, we can say about the existing gender differences in the manifestation of vengeful behavior among boys and girls, associated both with social and cultural attitudes, and with individual personality traits. The choice of the final model of behavior will depend on the general level of the individual maturity and the values that the individual stands for at the moment. In any case, such reactions to external aggression as resentment and vindictiveness are non-constructive forms of interaction and require deep analysis and further psycho-correction.

An analysis of the “Multidimensional Jealousy Scale” results gives grounds to state that the tested female students are more prone to emotional and behavioral (detective) manifestations of jealousy than male students are. The data on the general scale indicate an increased degree of jealousy among female students (77.63 points for female students, 69 – for male students).

It is interesting to compare our conclusions with the results of studies by G. Brace (Kansas), L. Adair (Arkansas) and K. Monk (Missouri), who studied gender differences in reactions to partner infidelity and the nature of jealousy manifestation among students in the Midwest of the United States of America. The authors did not find a difference in the degree of jealousy manifestation among boys and girls. Differences were recorded in the nature of the manifestation of jealousy and its semantic content.

For girls, the emotional component has become decisive, both in the demonstration of jealousy and in the content aspect: the prospect of emotional infidelity on the part of a partner carries more feelings and anxiety than physical intimacy without attachment. Young men tend to suspect their lovers of physical infidelity more often than girls. Doubts are explained by an unconscious fear of raising and raising someone elseʼs child, since among men there is a real risk of facing such consequences of a partner’s physical betrayal. In addition, girls, while physically cheating in current relationships, also cheat emotionally, showing trust and affection for the object of adultery, which causes anxiety and gives grounds for the manifestation of the cognitive component of jealousy in boys [28].

Similar results of fixing the gender characteristics of jealousy expression among students can be found in the study by M. Bendixen, L. Kennair and D. Buss (Texas), conducted in Norway. By showing jealousy, girls activate signals of emotional hostility. The degree of jealousy manifestation among young men was influenced by the presence of permanent relationships and an interest in a partner [29].

The Belarusian researcher A. O. Veigerchik traces in the study the relationship between the level of hostility and the form of manifestation of jealousy, taking into account gender differences. For females with a high rate of hostility, emotional and behavioral manifestations of jealousy are characteristic. In a situation of jealousy, girls, on the one hand, are characterized by a manifestation of aggression towards a partner, and on the other hand, a desire to please and do something pleasant to him, pursuing their own benefit. Young men are characterized by the denial of the presence of a jealous state, the avoidance of clarifications and conversations, followed by an intensive analysis of the current situation within themselves, proving the presence of a pronounced cognitive component of jealousy. The emotional and behavioral component among girls is explicated through a high suspicion, an inadequate reaction to the alleged object of jealousy (rival), control, manipulation and detective behavior towards a partner [30].

Thus, our results are partially confirmed by the analysis of data from foreign researchers. The increased level of jealousy among female students was not confirmed in their works. They focus on the differences in the components of jealousy manifestation.

We also concluded that female students are more characterized by the emotional and behavioral components of jealousy, reinforced by disappointment and resentment. Correlation dependence among female students can be traced between the general level of jealousy and its individual scales (cognitive 0.794; p < 0.05; emotional 0.488; p < 0.05; behavioral 0.674; p < 0.05), as well as between cognitive and behavioral scale (0.520; p < 0.05).

Male students are characterized by a cognitive component of jealousy, based on an internal doubt about the physical fidelity of a partner, tension in relationships and a desire for revenge. It is correlated with feelings of guilt (0.362; p < 0.05), emotional jealousy is positively associated with behavioral jealousy (0.596; p < 0.05), and the overall level of jealousy is associated with emotional (0.894; p < 0.05) and behavioral jealousy scales (0.769; p < 0.05).

The use of the questionnaire “Methodology for the study of personality envy” provided information that the surveyed male students are more prone to envy-dislike than female students are. The final data on the general scale indicate an increased level of envy among female students (52.27 points for female students, 49.47 points – for male students).

We can compare the obtained results of measuring envy with the study conducted by A. V. Pilishina, who studied envy in the context of interpersonal relationships and the influence of a gender on its manifestation in the student environment of higher educational institutions in Russia and the Czech Republic. A high level of envy on the scale “Envy-Dislike” was found among young cadets of military universities in St. Petersburg and young students of the University of Brno. The author suggests that this trend is due to the relationship of envy with conflict, aggressiveness and high competition in personal relationships among young men. On the “Envy-Despondency” scale, female students from the University of Brno and St. Petersburg State University demonstrated high scores.

17. V. Pilishina hypostasizes that for girls, the manifestation of envy-despondency can be dictated by anxiety, impressionability and reduced activity in interpersonal interaction. The tendency to take a passive position, ignore the successes of competitors and undermine the authority of the object of envy will be characteristic features for the expression of the envy-despondency type¹⁷.

American researchers D. DelPriore, S. Hill and D. Buss assessed the gender differences that appear in the subject field of envy. The researchers asked male and female students at the University of Texas to remember and describe situations that make them envious, indicating the circumstances and reasons. The topos of envy among young men turned out to be: success with the opposite sex, financial independence, status in society, academic progress and sports achievements. The most common reasons for the manifestation of envy among female students were: physical attractiveness, popularity, ease of communication with the opposite sex, respected family and fashionable clothes. Envy arose in response to the advantage of a social competitor, who achieved quickly the desired goals and raised his status in a society [31].

The research by Japanese neuroscientists T. Suhara and Y. Okubo in the field of functional brain imaging was aimed at establishing the neural correlates of envy and gloating among male and female students using magnetic resonance imaging. The results obtained fixed the manifestation mechanism of a painful reaction – envy and a protective (“useful”) reaction – gloating.

Envy, acting as an irrational, unpleasant feeling of inferiority caused by the superiority of another person, affects the dorsal striatum (striate body) of the basal ganglia of the brain, in which cognitive conflicts or “social pain” a rise and are processed. Malevolence or the feeling of reward (pleasure) received from someone else’s misfortune, activates the ventral striatum, which is responsible for some behavioral reactions and analysis of the received reward signal.

Envy indicators were positively correlated with the degree of gloating in both men and women, and there was a correlation between the intensity of gloating and the degree of activity of the ventral striatum (enjoyment). The results confirmed the presence of a neurocognitive mechanism of the rewarding reaction of gloating and its relationship with envy [32].

Returning to our study, let us note once again the existence of gender differences in the nature of envy manifestation among female students and male students. We have not been able to find convincing empirical evidence that female students are more envious than male students are. Nevertheless, we can talk about obvious differences in the nature of the manifestation and the subject area of envy. If female students are more characterized by the type of “envy-despondency”, accompanied by a passive (internal) experience, depression and a disguised decrease in active actions in relation to the object of envy, then male students are more likely to have an active manifestation of the “envy-dislike” type, aimed at self-affirmation and achievement of the goal at any cost, including an open aggression against the object of envy.

Correlations among female students can be traced between the general indicator of personality envy, envy-dislike (0.610; p < 0.05) and envy-despondency (0.791; p < 0.05). Negative relationships are observed between the overall scale of envy and verbal aggression (–0.477; p < 0.05) and envy-despondency and jealousy (–0.561; p < 0.05). A correlation dependence among male students is observed between the general indicator of envy and negativism (0.386; p < 0.05), envy-dislike (0.391; p < 0.05) and envy-despondency (0.566; p < 0.05). Envy-dislike correlates positively with the behavioral scale of jealousy (0.364; p < 0.05) and negatively with envy-despondency (–0.399; p < 0.05).

The Spearman rank correlation coefficient was used in the analysis of statistical data results. It is important to clarify that during the study of the resentiment constructions typical for university students: resentment, revenge, envy, jealousy and aggression, as well as recording the degree of their manifestation and interconnection in the optics of the gender dimension, 240 questionnaires (60 respondents and 4 diagnostic methods) were evaluated, which is a sufficient reference sample.

We emphasize the following limitations of empirical research: subject-sense – constructs of resentiment (resentment, revenge, envy, jealousy and aggression); quantitative – 60 respondents, 4 diagnostic methods, 240 questionnaires; qualitative indicators – students of full-time university (boys and girls from 18 to 22 years); moral and cultural – recording the degree of resentment, revenge, envy, jealousy and aggression in optics of the gender dimension and ethical – no physical harm or harm to the honor and dignity of the person, as well as voluntary participation of respondents in diagnostic activities and the inadmissibility of the use of the obtained data without their consent in the process of collection empirical information.

The conducted research with a significant degree of confidence allows us to say that ressentiment as an individual’s awareness of the socio-psychological inconsistency of subjective expectations with objective reality, the functional constructs of which are aggression, resentment, revenge, jealousy and envy, is endowed with an ambivalent nature. On the one hand, the influence of ressentiment will deform the spiritual dimension of the personality, reduce its creative potential, on the other hand, it will play the role of a psychological defense mechanism of the individual. The ressentiment formation model is schematically shown in Figure 5.

 

 

 

Fig. 5. Model of ressentiment formation in a social reality with consideration of gender peculiarities
of students of the university

 

 

In the process of empirical research, we found that ressentiment has gender-specific manifestations among university students. The stated hypothesis was partially confirmed. For male students, revenge and aggression turned out to be the dominant constructs of ressentiment, while for female students, resentment, jealousy, and envy were more pronounced.

The essential feature of the ressentiment personality type of male students is the manifestation of an aggressiveness increased level, associated with physical and indirect aggression, irritation and negativism. In relation to the subject of aggression, male students are more likely to react with revenge than with resentment, and resentment will be interconnected with the demonstration of verbal aggression and hostility. The propensity to activate the cognitive component of jealousy among male students will be associated with a sense of guilt, and the overall level of jealousy in total will become dependent on the manifestation of its emotional and behavioral components. The expression of envy-dislike among young students will be interconnected with the general level of personality envy, as well as with the behavioral scale of jealousy.

The most important indicator of the ressentimentary personality type of female students is an increased degree of hostility due to resentment and suspicion. In relation to the subject of aggression, female students are more likely to demonstrate a reaction of resentment than revenge. The level of resentment in this case will be interconnected with the degree of hostility. For female students, the characteristic components of jealousy will be emotional and behavioral components, while a close relationship will be traced between all three elements of jealousy. The manifestation of envy-despondency among female students will be positively associated with the general indicator of personality envy and negatively – with the general level of jealousy.

The presented gender features of ressentiment constructs among male students and female students can be explained by the influence of biological, social and cultural factors, as well as individual personality traits. The manifestation of ressentiment in the student environment is likely to be contradictory: internally – to deform the personality through such constructs as aggression, resentment, revenge, jealousy and envy, externally – to play the role of a defense mechanism for an individual who is unable to accept and adequately assess the socio-psychological discrepancy expectations and reality.

The empirical results obtained by us and the conclusions drawn on their basis are of interest to specialists in the field of social psychology and pedagogy, as they make a certain contribution to the theoretical development of the stated problem, to the study of the ressentiment formation mechanism and the specifics of its manifestation in the student environment. The prospect of further research in this direction is the creation of a psychoprophylaxis program and a psychocorrection of ressentiment in the university, taking into account the gender characteristics of students.

 

 

¹  In this article we proceed from the assumption that gender features represent sociocultural meanings, given by society to biological differences between the sexes.

²  Strawson P.F. Freedom and Resentment and Other Essays. London and New York: Routledge; 2008. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203882566

³  Scheler M. Resentment in the Structure of Morals / translated from German by A. N. Malinkin. St. Petersburg: Nauka, University Book; 1999.

⁴  Belicheva S.A. [Fundamentals of Preventive Psychology]. Moscow: Soc. Health of Russia; 1994. Available at: https://pedlib.ru/Books/2/0186 (accessed 16.08.2022). (In Russ.)

⁵  Petrov V.G. [Psychological Features of Aggressive Behavior and Ways of Its Correction: Dissertation ... Cand.Sci. (Psychol.). Irkutsk; 1999. (In Russ.) EDN: NLPDLL

⁶  Semenyuk L.M. [Psychological Features of Aggressive Behavior of Adolescents and Conditions for Its Correction]. Moscow: Moscow Psychological and Social Institute: Flint; Voronezh: MODEK Publ.; 1996. (In Russ.)

⁷  Gorshenina N.V. [Envy as a Moral and Psychological Feature of a Person (on the Example of Adolescence): Abstract of the Dissertation of the Candidate of Psychological Sciences: 19.00.01]. Kazan (Volga) Federal University. Kazan; 2016. (In Russ.)

⁸  Pilishina A.V. [Envy in the Context of Interpersonal Relations: Dissertation … Cand.Sci. (Psychol.)]. St. Petersburg; 2015. (In Russ.) EDN: ZPRIVX

⁹  Scheler M. Resentment in the Structure of Morals.

¹⁰  Overcome Ressentiment on Sloterdike [Electronic resource]. Le Monde; 2012. Available at: http://inosmi.ru/europe/20110531/18012.html (accessed 05.01.2022).

¹¹  Hwang A.A., Zaitsev Yu.A., Kuznetsova Yu.A. [Standardized Questionnaire for Measuring Aggressive and Hostile Reactions of A. Bass and A. Darki: method. recommendations]. Kemerovo: KRIPKiPRO; 2006. (In Russ.)

¹²  Ilyin E.P., Kovalev P.A. [Methodology “Personal Aggressiveness and Conflictˮ] [Electronic resource]. Available at: https://psytests.org/confl/ilaik.html (accessed 19.02.2023). (In Russ.)

¹³  [The Relationship of Aggressiveness and Jealousy in Romantic and Marital Relationships: Unpublished Term Paper] / A.O. Vergeychik, scientific director – Doctor of Psychological Sciences, Professor I.A. Furmanov; BSU. Minsk; 2013. (In Russ.)

¹⁴  Beskova T.V. [Social Psychology of Envy]. Saratov: Nauka Publ.; 2010. (In Russ.)

¹⁵  Information and Educational Portal of MI VlSU: Official site: https://www.mivlgu.ru/iop.

¹⁶  Baron R., Richardson D. [Aggression]. St. Petersburg: Peter; 2001. (Series: Masters of Psychology).

作者简介

Sergey Zavrazhin

Vladimir State University

编辑信件的主要联系方式.
Email: zavragin-sa@yandex.ru
ORCID iD: 0000-0002-7236-217X

Dr.Sci. (Ed.), Professor, Professor of the Chair of Personality Psychology and Special Pedagogy

俄罗斯联邦, 87 Gorkiy St., Vladimir 600000

Lyubov Kopchenova

Vladimir State University

Email: lubawa94@list.ru
ORCID iD: 0009-0006-0394-1377

Expert in Educational and Methodological Work of the 2nd Category, Murom Institute

俄罗斯联邦, 23 Orlovskaya St., Murom 602264

参考

补充文件