卷 12, 编号 1 (2024)

Research Objectives: This article is devoted to the study of some aspects of the problem of the origin of ethnonyms with color markers among the nomadic Turkic-speaking peoples. They are analysed only in regard to the two-component ethnonyms where the word denoting the name of the color is used as an attributive syntactically. In the academic literature, there are several views on the practice of using such markers and various explanations of their registry and semantics. The authors of the article proceed from the consideration that any explanations being imposed universally are premature and no generalizations can help to explain all the specific examples attested in the historical and ethnographic literature. They should be viewed for each chronological period and specific region since the practice of using color markers had its own characteristics, being, apparently, due to various factors. Thus, the marker should be identified directly with narrow specific source data. Written sources, however, contain almost no direct data to help in the problem.

Research Materials: The authors of the article used a Persian-language source of the 12th century, “ ʻEkd al-ʻOlā leʼl-mawkef al-aʻlā” by Afẓal al-Dīn Kermānī.

Results and Novelty of the Research: Information presented in the source mentioned a rare example to allow light to be shed on a specific case. There is a passage about a group of Ghūzz had to arrive in Kermān from Khurāsān. They also are named in the text as Qarā Ghūzz. The fact allows to confirm that, at least in the second half of the 12^th century among the tribes of the Oghuzs, the color marker qara was used to denote a secondary community that broke away from the initial collective, the name of which is represented by the second element of a two-component ethnonym with a color marker.

Research objectives: This article analyzes a new edition of the book by the famous Franciscan ambassador to the Mongols, John de Plano Carpini (1182–1252), who made a long journey from Lyon to Central Mongolia in 1245–1247 where he witnessed the enthronement of the khagan, Guyuk (1246–1248). Following the results of his difficult and dangerous journey, he wrote a report “The History of the Mongols,” in which he described quite fully and accurately what he saw and heard.

Research results and scientific novelty: The work of Plano Carpini was published in Russian three times: in 1795, 1825 and 1911; the last translation, made by A.I. Malein, was then published more than once and gradually overgrown with comments. However, all these editions cannot be considered fully satisfying the requirements of publishing medieval sources. The new edition in question here meets the standards of modern science. It includes an introductory part, a critical text of the source, its new translation into Russian and detailed comments made by professional medievalist historians. In the comments, various aspects of the Central Asian civilization of the 13th century, with which the Franciscan mission had a chance to come into contact, are covered as fully as possible: material and spiritual culture of nomads, organization of their society, military affairs and many others. Despite the high level of preparation of this publication, some points in it do not exclude an alternative interpretation.

Research objectives: Following M.A. Usmanov stated claim that hanging seals were not at all used in the Horde offices, this became an indisputable fact. However, D. Kolodzeichik proved the existence of golden hanging seals, which were officially called altunbaisa, on Crimean charters of the 17th century. He suggested that this innovation was introduced into the office of the Gireys. Recent studies allow us to speak confidently about the widespread existence of gold and silver gilded seals in the territory of the Siberian, Crimean and Kazan Khanates, in the Nogai Horde, and in the Caucasus in the 16th century. In addition, they are recorded among the peoples of the Middle Volga and Trans-Urals. Only two types of documents were certified with such seals – wool and letters of commendation. Traces of the phenomenon lead to the late Golden Horde’s offices. This paper examines information about the use of metal hanging seals in the offices of the Golden Horde and post-Horde states.

Research materials: Messages from the inventories of the archives of the Posolsky Prikaz and the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, Russian-Crimean and Russian-Nogai embassy books, as well as documents of the internal office work of the Foreign Ministry.

Results and scientific novelty of the study: The existence of gold and silver hanging seals, which were used to fasten individual documents in the post-Horde states of the 16th century, is demonstrated. At the same time, indirect data and the logic of the transformation of clerical practices allow us to assume their presence at least as early as the 15th century. Golden seals, apparently, became a logical step in the gradual transformation of the khan’s labels and paiz. At some point, these two items merged into one. This could have happened after the practice of awarding paiz ceased. The observations made here allow us to rethink the ideas about the Horde’s stationery traditions that have been long established in the scientific community.

The purpose of the study is to trace the historiography of the study of the Bulgarian-Tatar epigraphic monuments in the vast Zakazanye region of the Republic of Tatarstan, as well as to show the possibilities of modern research methods in this matter.

Research materials: Bulgarian-Tatar epigraphic monuments (tombstones) of the 13th–17th centuries. The work also involves extensive data from the historiography of the study of Bulgarian-Tatar epigraphic monuments and the results of modern methods of studying epigraphic monuments.

Results and novelty of the research: In chronological order, a review of the history of the study of the Bulgarian-Tatar epigraphic monuments in the Zakazanye region from the first researchers’ arrival to the ongoing research that is being carried out presently. The data on the specific personalities of researchers and quantitative data of the studied epigraphic monuments by the areas of the Zakazanye region are provided.

The modern methods of studying the epigraphic monuments of the Bulgar-Tatar period, including 3D scanning, photogrammetry, and high-precision photofixation with the placement of digital copies of monuments on a web resource, are shown.

Within the framework of this study, surveys of epigraphic monuments were conducted for the first time at the modern methodological and technical level. Thanks to the results of high-precision photogrammetric photography and 3D modeling, it was possible to obtain digital copies of objects which makes it possible to determine changes in shapes, as well as to restore the shape of lost objects from archival data.

The purpose of the study: To show that the Golden Horde mausoleums (keshene) of the Southern Cis-Urals – Husein-bek, Tura Khan, Bendebike, Kesene (Tamerlane’s Tower) – belong not only to different architectural schools, but they also belong to different ethnocultural and geographical spaces.

In this regard, the following tasks were laid out: To show that the Keshene Bendebike and the “Tower of Tamerlane” belong to a large group of so-called. steppe brick mausoleums built in the steppes of the Volga and Southern Urals according to the canons of the Central Asian architectural school. Erected in the second half to the end of the 14th century (or even at the beginning of the 15th century), they were intended to perpetuate the memory of representatives of the elite of the Golden Horde nomads. Unlike the brick ones, the stone mausoleums-keshene of Husein-bek, Tura Khan, Small Keshene were built according to the traditions of Bulgarian architecture in the forest-steppe regions of the Dema River valley, a territory inhabited in the 14th century, by carriers of the Chiyalik culture.

Research materials: The study uses geographical, archaeological, and folklore data on the kashene mausoleums of the Southern Cis-Urals obtained by researchers of the 18th–20th centuries.

Results and scientific novelty: The geography of the distribution of brick mausoleums in the steppes of the Volga and Cis-Ural regions shows that, based on the time of their construction, they could have appeared among the Golden Horde nomads even at a time when paganism was not completely supplanted by Islam (there are numerous nomadic burials with coins of Uzbekistan and later rulers). Thus, mausoleums erected over the graves of the nomadic elite became an organic part of the culture of the nomads of the Golden Horde.

The stone mausoleums of the Cis-Urals had nothing to do with nomadic culture. They were built in the ethnocultural space and on the territory of settlement of semi-nomadic carriers of the Chiyalik culture (Ishtyak-Ugrians). They became centers of Muslim cemeteries quite late – not earlier than the 17th century – when the “Chiyaliks” were already assimilated by the Turkic ancestors of the Dem Bashkir-Mings/Mings. Therefore, in the historical memory of their descendants, the Bashkirs of the 18th–19th centuries, the stone keshenes of Husein-bek and Tura Khan were overgrown with traditions and legends, the plots and characters of which are not directly related to the ethnocultural history of the Bashkirs.

Research objectives: The purpose of the article is to identify the correct and most complete text of the epitaph on the monument to Husein-bek which was preserved in the cemetery of Chishma workers’ village of the Chishminsky district of the Republic of Bashkortostan.

Research materials: The study was conducted on the basis of an analysis of articles and books by epigraphists, photographs of monuments of the 14th century, as well as materials of the author's epigraphic expedition.

Results and scientific novelty: The text of the monument to Husein-bek is currently only partially preserved, so it is no longer possible to read it completely. But on the basis of a duplicate of this monument, made and installed on the initiative of Mufti M. Sultanov, and a monument from Bulgar which is very similar to the monuments of Husein-bek, it was possible to reconstruct its inscriptions. We believe that we have managed to ascertain which words were written on the front and sides of this stone that were missed or incorrectly read by other specialists, as well as to refute the date of Husein-bek’s death proposed by scientist G.V. Yusupov. According to paleographic features, the object studied by us is very similar to other monuments that have been preserved in the Bulgar of the modern Spasky district of the Republic of Tatarstan. Based on this, it is safe to say that the monument was made by Bulgarian-Tatar carvers. Husein-bek himself was a statesman, a native of the unknown settlement of Tarsas, which was located in the territory of Turkestan. The epitaph on the monument to Husein-bek is written in relief handwriting in the Arabic and Tatar languages. In addition to information about the deceased, the stone contains traditional Tatar religious sayings, prayers, and poems.

Purpose of the research: To identify and define a complex of historical, archaeological and linguistic materials representing information about the population of the Ik-Belaya interfluve in the 13th–14th centuries.

Research materials: The article uses materials of archaeological research, as well as written and epigraphic sources from the territory of the Ik-Belaya interfluve of the 13th–14th centuries.

Novelty and results of the study: During the period of the Golden Horde (Ulus of Jochi), the agricultural and Muslim population from the Bulgarian ulus began to actively penetrate into the territory of the Ik-Belaya interfluve (Agidel-yurt) while the steppe zone was inhabited by a nomadic population. Earlier, only the Tatar military aristocracy penetrated into the Bulgarian ulus, but nomadic tribes did not do so. Later, the border between the settled agricultural and nomadic populations became dynamic due to the crisis in the Late Golden Horde period. The northern part of the Eastern Kama region remained exclusively developed by the Muslim agricultural population which later became the basis for the formation of the Tatar people.

Research objectives: An analysis and generalization of materials on the history of the emergence of Karaite communities on the territory of the Crimean peninsula in the era of the Ulus of Jochi and the Crimean Khanate.

Research materials: As a result of comparing published materials on the history of the Crimean Karaites, data from archaeological and epigraphic studies, as well as in the process of studying the funds of the Russian State Historical Archive (RSHA, St. Petersburg) and the State Archive of the Republic of Crimea (SARC, Simferopol), information was analyzed related to the problem of the emergence of Karaite communities on the territory of Crimea in the era of Ulus Jochi and the Crimean Khanate.

Results and scientific novelty: Many episodes in the history of the Crimean Karaites still remain outside the field of view of researchers. There is also the problem of interpretation of sources. In particular, this concerns the controversy about the origin of the Crimean Karaites and the time of their appearance on the territory of the Crimean peninsula, a process that had been going on for more than 100 years with the discussion sometimes going beyond scientific argumentation.

The stages of the scientific study of the past of the Crimean Karaites are characterized by different levels of intensity, as well as large variety of methods and approaches used. Interest in this problem first arose among representatives of Russian academic circles in the first half of the 19th century. The Russian administration became interested in the history of the Karaites in part because the ideas of the European Enlightenment, which largely determined the policy of the Russian government in a number of key areas, implied the spread of Russian culture and education to the “Asian peoples.” In relation to the Karaites, Krymchaks, and Ashkenazi Jews, the Russian government adopted laws and regulations, in accordance with which the Karaites were able to legislatively strengthen their legal status. The Russian government, however, used restrictive measures by pursuing a discriminatory anti-Jewish policy against the Jewish population. The Karaites managed to get the authorities to recognize them as a community that differed from the Rabbanites while they received various legal and economic preferences. The same time period marked the onset of the large-scale activity of the famous collector of Jewish antiquities, Abraham Firkowicz, who initiated the creation of an extensive collection of manuscripts related to the history of Jewish communities, including in the Crimean peninsula.

Based on the materials presented, it was concluded that the Karaite community could have appeared in the Crimea not earlier than the second half of the 13th century. Active resettlement of Karaites to the Crimea from the territories of the Middle East, Byzantium, and subsequently from the Ottoman Empire had been taking place since the middle of the 14th century. These chronological periods are also supported by material evidence of the stay of the Karaites in this region (archaeological and epigraphic studies of medieval Solkhat, Mangup-Kale, and Chufut-Kale).

On October 12–14, 2023, the All-Russian (with international participation) symposium “Milestones of History” was held in the Chelyabinsk region. Four round tables were held within the framework of symposium: “Ulus of Jochi, time of formation: 1207–1243” (October 12, Varna village), “Mausoleums of the Middle Ages of the Volga-Urals, Crimea and Kazakhstan: research of problems” (October 12, Varna village), “Southern and Middle Urals from Jochi to Nicholas I” (October 13, Chelyabinsk) and “History, economics and culture of the medieval Turkic-Tatar states of Western Siberia” (October 14, Chelyabinsk).