Chemical Composition, Mineralogy and Physical Properties of the Mantle of the Moon: a Review

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The problem of the internal structure plays a special role in the geochemistry and geophysics of the Moon. The main sources of information about the chemical composition and physical state of the deep interior are seismic experiments of the Apollo expeditions, gravity data from the GRAIL mission, geochemical and isotopic studies of lunar samples. Despite the high degree of similarity of terrestrial and lunar matter in the isotopic composition of a number of elements, the question of the similarity and/or difference in the composition of the silicate shells of the Earth and its satellite in relation to the main elements remains unresolved. The review article summarizes and critically analyzes information on the composition and structure of the Moon, examines the main contradictions between geochemical and geophysical classes of mantle structure models both within each class and between the classes, related to the estimation of the abundance of the major element oxides Fe, Mg, Si, Al, Ca, and analyzes bulk silicate Moon (BSM) models. The principles of the approach to modeling the internal structure of a planetary body, based on the joint inversion of an integrated set of selenophysical, seismic, and geochemical parameters combined with calculations of phase equilibria and physical properties, are presented. Two new classes of the chemical composition of the Moon, enriched in silica (~50% SiO2) and ferrous iron (11-13% FeO, Mg# 79–81) in relation to the bulk composition of the silicate component of the Earth (BSE) are discussed — models E with terrestrial concentrations of CaO and Al2O3 (Earth-like models) and models M with higher refractory oxide content (Moon-like models), which determine the features of the mineralogical and seismic structure of the lunar interior. The probabilistic distribution of geochemical (oxide concentrations) and geophysical (P-, S-wave velocities and density) parameters in the four-layer lunar mantle within the range of permissible selenotherms was obtained. Systematic differences in the content of rock-forming oxides in the silicate shells of the Earth and the Moon have been revealed. Calculations of the mineral composition, P-, S-wave velocities, and density of the E/M models and two classes of conceptual geochemical models LPUM (Lunar Primitive Upper Mantle) and TWM (Taylor Whole Moon) with Earth’s silica content (~45 wt.% SiO2) and different FeO and Al2O3 contents were carried out. The justification of the SiO2-FeO-enriched (olivine-pyroxenite) lunar mantle, which has no genetic similarity with Earth’s pyrolitic mantle, is provided as a geochemical consequence of the inversion of geophysical parameters and determined by cosmochemical conditions and the Moon’s formation mechanism. The major mineral of the lunar upper mantle is high-magnesium orthopyroxene with low calcium content rather than olivine, as confirmed by Apollo seismic data and supported by spacecraft analysis of spectral data from a number of impact basin rocks. In contrast, the P- and S-wave velocities of the TWM and LPUM geochemical models, in which olivine is the major mineral of the lunar mantle, do not match the Apollo seismic data. The geochemical constraints in the scenarios for the formation of the Moon are considered. The simultaneous enrichment of the Moon in SiO2 and FeO relative to pyrolitic mantle of the Earth is incompatible with the formation of the Moon as a result of a giant impact from terrestrial matter or an impact body (bodies) of chondritic composition and becomes the same obstacle in modern scenarios of the formation of the Moon as the similarity in the isotopic compositions of lunar and terrestrial samples. The problem of how to fit these different geochemical factors into the Procrustean bed of cosmogonic models for the Earth-Moon system formation is discussed.

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O. Kuskov

Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry of the Russian Academу of Sciences

编辑信件的主要联系方式.
Email: ol_kuskov@mail.ru
俄罗斯联邦, Moscow

E. Kronrod

Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry of the Russian Academу of Sciences

Email: ol_kuskov@mail.ru
俄罗斯联邦, Moscow

V. Kronrod

Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry of the Russian Academу of Sciences

Email: ol_kuskov@mail.ru
俄罗斯联邦, Moscow

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2. Fig. 1. Gross composition models of the Moon (crust + mantle) from geochemical and geophysical data compared to the composition of the silicate portion of the Earth (Star, McDonough, Sun, 1995). M78 = Morgan et al., 1978; R77 = Ringwood, 1977; B&T80 = Buck, Toksoz, 1980; TWM = Taylor, 1982; J&D89 = Jones, Delano, 1989; S92 = Snyder, 1992; L03 = Lognonné et al., 2003; LPUM = Longhi, 2006; W05 = Warren, 2005; Kh07 = Khan et al, 2007; E11 = Elkins-Tanton et al., 2011; D14 = Dauphas et al., 2014; K19Cold/Hot - composition estimates for cold (Cold) and hot (Hot) models of the Moon (Kuskov et al., 2019a). K22E/M = Kronrod et al., 2022, composition estimates for E models with terrestrial values of Al2O3 and CaO, and M models with higher Al2O3 and CaO contents

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3. Fig. 2. Schematic nine-layer model of the Moon differentiated by melting into shells: megaregolith, crust, four-layered mantle, partially molten transition zone (low viscosity/velocity zone, LVZ), liquid outer core, and solid inner core; inferred layer boundaries in the mantle are located at depths H ~ 34 km (average crustal thickness), 250, 500, 750, and 1250 km (Gagnepain-Beyneix et al, 2006; Wieczorek et al., 2013; Weber et al., 2011; Kuskov et al., 2023)

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4. Fig. 3. Models of the French seismological team. Propagation velocity profiles of longitudinal VP (a) and transverse VS (b) waves in the lunar mantle. Denotes L05 = Lognonné, 2005; GB06 = Gagnepain-Beyneix et al., 2006; G11 (VPREMOON) = Garcia et al., 2011. Profiles of the Danish Kh00 = Khan et al. (2000) group are shown for comparison. All seismic models have errors that are given by Gagnepain-Beyneix et al. (2006) for VP and VS, respectively: 38-238 km - 7.65 ± 0.06 and 4.44 ± 0.04 km/s, 238-488 km - 7.79 ± 0.12 and 4.37 ± 0.07 km/s, 488-738 km -7.62 ± 0.22 and 4.40 ± 0.11 km/s, 738-1000 km - 8.15 ± 0.23 and 4.50 ± 0.10 km/s

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5. Fig. 4. Danish seismological team models, modified from (Khan et al., 2007). The longitudinal wave velocity profile (VP) is obtained by joint inversion of seismic and gravity data. Left panel - a priori probability; right panel - posterior probability

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6. Fig. 5. International Seismology Group models (Garcia et al., 2019) for VP (a) and VS (b): G19_M1 (dashed blue line), G19_M2 (dashed green line), G19_M3 (dashed orange line). The dashed black line is the W11 model (Weber et al., 2011). The other notations in Fig. 3

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7. Fig. 6. TP,S profiles in the lunar mantle obtained by inverting the P-, S-wave velocities of the VPREMOON reference model for olivine pyroxenite and pyrolite (Table 5); the sawtooth character of the TP,S curves is due to the rate of change of VP,S - H values in the model (Garcia et al., 2011). The change in the temperature gradient at depths of 200-300 km is related to the spinel-garnet phase transition (Ol + Sp + Opx + Cpx ↔ Ol + Gar + Opx + Cpx). (a) Ca, Al-depleted olivine pyroxenite, (b) Ca, Al-enriched pyrolite. Modified from Kuskov et al. (2016)

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8. Fig. 7. Distribution of TP,S profiles in the upper and lower mantle of the Moon obtained by inversion of P-, S-wave velocities using constant velocity models within the L05 (Lognonné, 2005) and GB06 (Gagnepain-Beyneix et al., 2006) layers for compositions from Table 5. (a) - olivine pyroxenite (Ol-Px) depleted in Ca and Al and pyrolite (Pyr) enriched in Ca and Al; (b) - olivine pyroxenite Ol-Px (shaded area) based on GB06 model, dashed lines - temperature errors; (c) - pyrolite (shaded area) with the error taken into account (blue dashed lines) in comparison with temperatures for Ol-Px composition (red line). The grey area is the temperature range according to (Khan et al., 2007). Dashed-dotted line - solidus for peridotite composition according to (Hirschmann, 2000). Modified from (Kuskov et al., 2016; Kuskov et al., 2014a)

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9. Fig. 8. Admissible temperature distribution in the Moon's mantle based on the totality of geophysical data. Short dashed lines with squares and rhombuses are the temperature region for cold (blue) and hot (red) selenotherms (Kuskov et al., 2019a, 2019b). The long dashed line is the temperature profile according to (Kuskov and Kronrod, 2009). Solid lines are temperature profiles at mid-depths of mantle reservoirs with T150 km = 600°C and T1000 km = 950-1350°C. Horizontal solid lines are inferred boundaries at depths of 250, 500 and 750 km (Gagnepain-Beyneix et al., 2006). The grey shaded area is the temperature interval from the combined seismic and gravity data from (Khan et al., 2007). The dashed (pink) line is the solidus of peridotite according to Hirschmann (2000). For other notations, see Fig. 2. Modified from (Kuskov et al., 2019a, 2019b; Kuskov et al., 2023)

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10. Fig. 9. Probabilistic estimates of the chemical composition (concentrations of basic oxides) in the triple-layered mantle of the Moon. Calculations were performed at a fixed T = 600°C in the upper mantle at a depth of 150 km for two variants of the thermal state at mid-depths of the mantle reservoirs: the cold model (cold) corresponds to isotherms T2 - T3 = 1050-1150°C, and the hot model (hot) to isotherms T4 - T5 = 1250-1350°C at a depth of 1000 km. Mantle layers (1, 2, 3) are indicated by colour: 1 - upper mantle (from the crust-mantle boundary to 240 km), 2 - middle mantle (240-750 km), 3 - lower mantle (750 km - core-mantle boundary). (a, a′) - Al2O3, (b, b′) - FeO, (c, c′) - MgO, (d, d′) - SiO2. Modified from (Kuskov et al., 2019a, 2019b)

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11. Fig. 10. Posterior distribution of Al2O3, FeO, MgO, SiO2 oxide concentrations for E-, M-models in the interval of profiles T1-T5 in the lunar mantle. Mantle 1-3 is the upper mantle at depths from the crust-mantle boundary to ~ 750 km, Mantle 4 (= BSM) is the undifferentiated lower mantle from 750 km to the boundary with the reduced viscosity/velocity zone. The thermal regime is shown in colour: from blue (cold selenotherms) to brown (hot selenotherms), at 1000 km depth the temperature varies from 950°C (blue) to 1350°C (brown). Modified from Kronrod et al. (2022)

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12. Fig. 11. Histograms of the probability distribution of oxide concentrations and geophysical parameters (P-, S-wave velocities and density) for E/M models along the selenotherm T3 in the Moon's chemically bilayer mantle. Mantle 1-3 is the upper mantle with boundaries at depths of 34 km (crust-mantle boundary), 250, 500 and 750 km, Mantle 4 (= BSM) is the primitive lower mantle in the depth range from 750 km to the LVZ boundary

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13. Fig. 12. Histograms of the probability distribution of oxide concentrations and geophysical parameters (P-, S-wave velocities and density) for E/M models along the selenotherm T4 in the chemically bilayer mantle of the Moon. See Fig. 11 for other notations

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14. Fig. 13. VP (a), VS (b) and density (c) profiles in the lunar mantle for the E (E_Mantle 1-3) and M (M_Mantle 1-3) composite models, TWM and LPUM along the T4 temperature profile compared to the G19_M1/M2/M3 reference models (Garcia et al., 2019): M1 (dashed blue line), M2 (dashed-dotted green line), M3 (dashed-dotted-orange line). The bold red line is the GB06 model (Gagnepain-Beyneix et al., 2006). The dashed-dotted black line is model W11 (Weber et al., 2011). Modified from (Kuskov et al., 2023)

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