No 4 (2024)
Ethnocultural and Language Development of an Ethnic Minority in a Genetically Relative Environment (Field Study on the Oirats in Mongolia in 2024)
Abstract
The article deals with the cultural and linguistic dynamics in the development of the Oirat ethnic minority in Mongolia, who have lived compactly in a linguistically related environment for several centuries. This includes Oirat ethnic groups such as the Durvud, Torguud, Zakhchin, Myangad, Bayad, Uriankhai, Uuld, Khotgoid, Khoshuud, Khoyt and Khoton. The Oirat language belongs to the western branch of the Mongolian languages of the Altaic language family. It is an ancient written language. The Oirat script “Todo bichg” (clear script) was de-veloped in 1648 by the Oirat scholar Zaya Pandita. A characteristic feature of the language situation in Mongolia is that most languages belong to the Mongolian language family and are, therefore, surrounded by other closely related languages. The article aims to analyze the dynamics in the development of Oirat idioms in Mongolia under the conditions of a cognate environment in order to specify their linguistic vitality. Language contact between related languages can lead to the assimilation of the language of a smaller language community, usually into a dialect of the dominant language community. Rapid assimilation can occur for several reasons. Firstly, the psychological factor is decisive. As a rule, the speakers of the assimilating language have no psychological barriers, since they are in a culturally and linguistically related environment and are not subject to any moral or psychological pressure from the dominant group, the language change takes place almost unnoticed. Secondly, due to the genetic proximity of the idioms with which they come into contact, the minority languages are restricted in their range of functions, giving way to the dominant language and thus losing prestige. These linguistic processes can be clearly traced in the functional and structural development of the language of the Oirat groups in Mongolia. The article analyzes the language change of the Oirat people in Mongolia based on material from a sociolinguistic field study conducted in 2024 among the Oirat people in Mongolia.
Tomsk Journal of Linguistics and Anthropology. 2024;(4):9-22
9-22
System of Approximative Markers in Sakha
Abstract
The article considers data from Sakha that marks an approximate quantity in numerical constructions. The article describes a system of such markers. First, I analyze the available data from published sources and represent the inventory of markers in Sakha. In particular, I have described the marker igin (игин), for which there is no data both in the grammatical descriptions known to me and in the dictionaries. I have refined the data on the other approximate quantity markers in comparison with the literature. I also described the surface morphosyntax of such constructions (linear position in a quantified expression, in particular, the ability to occur between the elements of a complex quantifier). The investigation revealed two different strategies of word order in numerical constructions. Second, I analyzed the contexts with other classes of numerals and some syntactic categories beyond quantified expressions with cardinal numerals. As this part of my investigation has shown, imprecise quantity markers in Sakha are incompatible with ordinal numerals (except for igin). The morphosyntactic properties of an approximative quantity marker хас (xas) have also been described. These properties distinguish it from other operators that mark an approximate quantity. Third, I examined the cross-category properties of the markers in question. It was shown that the markers kurduk (курдук), saɣa (саҕа), and keriŋe (кэриҥэ) can function as equatives (marking the standard of comparison). In this usage, saɣa and keriŋe are also restricted to quantitative contexts, while the distribution of kurduk is much broader. It has been shown that kurduk acquires an epistemic modal function in combination with non-finite verbal forms. The corresponding data were analyzed in terms of scales and pragmatic halos resulting from the framework presented in [Lasersohn 1999]. Finally, it was shown that different types of scales are available for the approximate markers analyzed in this paper.
Tomsk Journal of Linguistics and Anthropology. 2024;(4):31-46
31-46
The intonation of the dialog in the Kumandin language (Results of the field research)
Abstract
The intonation of Turkic languages has practically not been researched yet. In modern society, against the background of globalization and the leveling of national characteristics of ethnic groups, the problem of recording, studying, and preserving the cultural characteristics of minority peoples is exceptionally acute. This article is the first to examine the intonation of the Kumandin dialogic language. The Kumandin language belongs to the East Uyghur branch of the Turkic languages of the Altai language family, has no established written tradition, and functions only in oral form, accelerating its disappearance. The relevance of the study arises from the increasing interest in the problems of language communication, documentation, and analysis of data on endangered languages in Siberia. The analysis is based on field recordings using the Praat computer program. According to the results of the analysis of experimental data, interrogative statements in the Kumandin dialogic speech, which are the first replica in the structure of the dialog, are characterized by a higher level of the end of the melodic curve than in the affirmative statements. The response in the Kumandin language, which is in a relative relationship to the preceding interrogative component, is both a structurally communicative and intonationally concluding component of the entire dialogic unit. In incomplete statements, the intonation is clearer and brighter. The frequency level in the analyzed interrogative statements is between 106 and 257 Hz. One of the phenomena that claims the status of a linguistic universal in the field of intonation studies is the raising of the frequency of the main tone or pitch, which is used in most languages to distinguish between interrogative and affirmative intonation. Intonation functions in close interaction with the syntactic and lexico-grammatical means of the language: the more complete the dialogic statement, the weaker the intonational contrast, while a brighter, clearer intonation is observed in incomplete statements. The prospects for further research are to deepen the identified tendencies by expanding the body of research and to describe the general model of the intonational structure of certain questions as a result of comparing the intonational contours of statements with different question words. The intonation of the interrogative part in Kumandin’s dialogic speech is considered for the first time. The relevance of the study arises from the increasing interest in the problems of linguistic communication, documentation, and data analysis of the endangered languages of Siberia. The analysis is carried out based on field recordings using the Praat computer program. According to the results of the analysis of experimental data, interrogative statements, which are the first replica in the structure of the dialog, are characterized by an upward movement of the tone.
Tomsk Journal of Linguistics and Anthropology. 2024;(4):47-57
47-57
The Functioning of Bilingualism in the Republic of Bashkortostan
Abstract
Bilingualism in the Republic of Bashkortostan plays an important role in preserving the region’s cultural diversity and national identity. By enabling people to communicate in two languages, it allows them to participate in different aspects of life while preserving their linguistic and cultural heritage. The article deals with bilingualism and polylingualism in the Republic of Bashkortostan. It deals with the extent of the spread of national-Russian bilingualism. Bashkir-Russian and Tatar-Russian bilingualisms are the most developed in the republic. For the study, quantitative analysis of information from various sources was used. Statistical processing of digital data was used to create the tables. The aim of this work is to study the peculiarities of the functioning of bilingualism and multilingualism in the Republic of Bashkortostan based on census data. The main types of these phenomena are identified. The author also draws attention to multilingual education in modern society. The educational institutions of the Republic of Bashkortostan have organized the study of 14 native languages. The article also notes that subordinate bilingualism and polylingualism are accompanied by interference errors, the study of which will help to develop effective methods for teaching Russian as a second language to native speakers of the national language and avoid the repetition of these errors in the future. According to the results of the All-Russian census, it was found that there are about 150 languages in the republic. The languages of international communication are Russian, Bashkir, and Tatar. The population of the Republic of Bashkortostan is 4091423 people, including Bashkirs – 1268806, Russians – 1509246, Tatars – 974533, Mari – 84988, Chuvashs – 79950, Ukrainians – 14876, Mordvins – 10970, Udmurts – 17149, Belarusians – 3753, other nationalities – 61096. It should be noted that 98.5% of the population speaks Russian, Bashkir – 23%, Tatar – 20.1%, English – 3.2%, Mari – 1.5%, and Chuvash – 1.3% of the population of the Republic of Belarus. Despite all the conditions created to preserve the national languages of their peoples, there is a decline in the level of mastery of native languages in the republic, with the exception of Russian.
Tomsk Journal of Linguistics and Anthropology. 2024;(4):58-67
58-67
On the Distribution of Homorganic Final Consonants -m/-p, -n/t, -ŋ/-k in Selkup Dialects
Abstract
This article describes the distribution of the nasal and stop consonants -m / -p, -n / -t, ŋ / -k in the auslaut independent and phonetically determined positions in the Southern, Central, and Northern dialects of the Selkup language. The Ivankino subdialect of the central Ob dialect is also distinguished as a transition zone between the southern and central areas. The study is carried out using corpus data based on written sources. In phonetically independent positions – in isolated use of word forms and before pauses (before dots and commas) - the distribution of homorganic nasal and stop consonants in the auslaut is meant as a dialect feature: Southern -m, -n, -ŋ; Central -p, -t, -k; Northern -m/-p (~Ø), -n/-t (~Ø), -ŋ/-k (~Ø); transition zone -m / -p, -n / -t, -ŋ / -k (depending on the speaker’s idiolect). In phonetically determined positions – continuous pronunciation that does not imply a pause in speech - the following distribution of consonants applies: Central: -p, -t, -k + noise consonant ~ -m, -n, -ŋ + sonorant consonant / -m, -n, -ŋ + vowel; Northern (based on the Taz dialect): -m, -n, -ŋ + vowel, -m, -n, -ŋ (~ Ø) + nasal consonant, -p, -t, -k (~ Ø) + noise consonant, -m / -p (~Ø), -n / -t (~Ø), -ŋ /-k (~Ø) + non-nasal sonorant consonant. In the Southern dialects, the rules of the phonetic environment do not work; the consonants -m, -n, -ŋ are always used. In the transitional Ivankino subdialect of the Middle Ob dialect, the distribution in contextual positions does not always work due to the Southern dialectal characteristics of the individual speakers. The combinatorial phenomena considered in the Selkup dialects represent a general trend rather than a strict rule.
Tomsk Journal of Linguistics and Anthropology. 2024;(4):68-78
68-78
Classification of Selkup Dialects in the 18th Century Using the Program LingvoDoc
Abstract
The article examines the dialectal material of the Selkup language collected in the 20th century by A. P. Dulzon and his successors and by G. Miller, P. Pallas, and M. Castrén in the 18th century. From the perspective of dialect-differentiating isoglosses, the article shows numerous exceptions in the correspondence between the southern and central Selkup dialects. When looking at materials based on known isoglosses, it is difficult to identify systematic differences between southern and central dialects in the 18th century. This article, therefore, aims to investigate when the differences between the southern and central dialects emerged and how significant the differences between northern and central-southern Selkup were. To investigate this question, we uploaded five 18th-century dictionaries by G. Miller to the LingvoDoc platform (lingvodoc.ispras.ru). The graph-phonetic isoglosses and the basic vocabulary were then analyzed using proprietary programs. The results show that the northern Selkup dialect already differed phonetically and lexically from the central and southern dialects in the 18th century. It can be assumed that there were two Selkup languages at this period. In this period, there were no systematic phonetic isoglosses between the southern and central dialects, but lexically, they were already different from each other. It has already been established that all the phonetic features of the Narym dialect that can be identified in the 21st century were already present in the book by Saint Makary (Nevsky), “Materials for acquaintance with the dialect of the Ostyak people of the Narym region” written in 1887. Thus, it becomes clear that the phonetic differences between the southern and central dialects appeared only in the early 19th century, although the glottochronological analysis of S. Starostin places their separation in the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE.
Tomsk Journal of Linguistics and Anthropology. 2024;(4):79-91
79-91
On Some Strategies for Expressing Attribution in the Orok Language
Abstract
The article examines strategies for expressing attributive relations in languages of different typologies to implement national communicative behavior and reflect the semantic-syntactic features of Tungus-Manchu languages. In the Tungus-Manchu languages, where the class of adjectives is quite sparse, attributive semantics is realized by morphosyntactic means: proper attributives, possessive constructions, and possession constructions. In the Tungus-Manchu languages, non-possession constructions are used to express negative attributive meanings, forming possessive adjectives with the negative particle -ana, which semantically correspond to the Russian negative adjectives with the prefixes не- and без-. The structure of an attributive construction traditionally consists of at least two components: a definition (an adjective as the main means of expressing attributive semantics) and a definitum (a name of nominative semantics, which in Russian, for example, indicates the categorial characteristics of a defining adjective: number, case, and gender). Neutral, for example Russian ‘про солдатск=ую наград=у‘ or ‘по старой железн=ой дорог=е‘. In possessive constructions (noun + noun in possessive form), the relationships are realized at the level of word order: the first component – possessor – is a noun, the second substantivally expressed component is definite, the connection between them is established by possessive suffixes that reflect the personal number of the possessor. In the Tungus-Manchu languages, there are different types of possessive constructions, substantival and pronominal, which differ in the grammatical affiliation of the possessor (the noun itself or a pronoun-noun). Possessive constructions are formalized by possessive adjectives and are represented in the Tungus-Manchu languages as one-component but semantically complex constructions that realize the semantics of the phrase (‘to possess something denoted as a nominal base: to have something denoted as a base’ – a noun) and as two-component constructions: The first component is a noun denoting a characteristic feature by quantity or quality, quite regularly in the instrumentalis form (a form without case indicators is acceptable) and a possessive adjective. Adjectives in this category exclusively fill a postposition in relation to the defined object. Semantic criteria regulate the qualification of possessive constructions expressing attributive relationships: As equivalents of the definitions agreed upon in Russian, some components characterize the inalienable properties of a subject – a person or another living being (аси=лу ‘женой обладающий = женатый’, геда=ди путтэ=лу ‘одним ребенком не обладающий = бездетный’). When denoting alienable properties, the semantics of the adjective possession corresponds to the inconsistent definitions of the Russian language (нари куче=лу ‘человек, ножом обладающий = человек с ножом’).
Tomsk Journal of Linguistics and Anthropology. 2024;(4):92-99
92-99
Correlation of Vocal and Consonant Components of Word Form in Turkic and Mongolian Languages
Abstract
The algorithms for the correlation of vocal and consonant components of the sound structure of a soft-order word form are investigated using material from the Turkic languages of Southern Siberia and the Mongolian languages of Russia and Mongolia. According to the results of the auditory and instrumental analysis, four models of the implementation of the category of softness were identified in the Turkic and Mongolian languages, the selection of which is based on the presence of either a class of phonemes of the mediolingual and medio-interlingual articulatory series in the consonant system (the 1st and 2nd correlation model are implemented in all Turkic languages considered except Khakass and Mongolian–Kalmyk) or a class of palatalized units with different phonemic status (3rd and 4th model in Khakass, Khori-Buryat, Khalkha-Mongolian). The 1st model is characterized by the acoustic effect of a strong or moderate softness of the consonant: mediolingual and medio-interlingual consonants can only be combined with vowels of the front row. The 2nd model is realized with the acoustic effect of a weak or super-weak palatalization: frontlingual, interlingual, and backlingual consonants require vowels of the central, central-back, or mixed articulatory series after them. The 3rd model is used in soft-order word forms with vowels of the front articulatory series that have a regressive assimilative effect on the preceding consonant and cause its strong or moderate palatalization. The 4th model is used in word forms with non-frontal vowels of a soft synharmonic series (central, central-back, and mixed-row) that cause only a weak palatalization of a prepositive consonant. The obvious material and structural similarity of phonico-phonological systems, a unified typology of the principles of formation of the phonetic appearance of the word form in the South Siberian Turkic and Mongolian languages have developed in the process of long-term contacts of ethnic groups and their languages in different areas of their distribution and in different periods of historical development.
Tomsk Journal of Linguistics and Anthropology. 2024;(4):100-111
100-111
Language and Ethnic Identity as Reflected in Censuses and Regional Surveys: the Case of Buryatia
Abstract
The main idea and purpose of this article is to test the hypothesis that the results of the 2020 All-Russian census compared to the 2010 census show a statistically significant increase in the emotivity coefficient, i.e., the number of people who claim an ethnic language as their mother tongue but do not actually know it. Buryat was named among the languages that, on the contrary, showed low emotivity coefficient, which might indicate a decrease in its symbolic value between 2010 and 2020. To test the hypothesis regarding the Buryat language, the authors of the article compared the data from the ‘big’ statistics (censuses) with the ‘small’ statistics – materials from regional studies on the Republic of Buryatia. The comparison revealed several differences between them. The 2020 census showed that the number of people who know the Buryat language, use it in everyday life, and consider it their mother tongue has increased. The 2020 regional survey, on the other hand, showed a sharp decline in the number of people who consider Buryat to be their mother tongue and an equally sharp increase in the number of people with a dual ethnolinguistic identity. According to the authors, this difference can be attributed to the lack of information on two or more mother tongues in the final 2020 census data. However, this information indicates new trends, hybrid ethnonyms, and an increased number of people who have not declared their ethnicity. The analysis of regional statistics also showed the similarity of today’s Buryat linguistic competence with that at the end of the Soviet era and the mechanism of language shift. This mechanism consists of the redistribution of language skills within the concept of language competence itself: the gradual increase in passive skills, the decrease in active skills, and the variation in literacy skills depending on the vector of language policy in education. The research confirmed the decreased emotivity coefficient of the Buryat language; on the contrary, during the post-Soviet period, the "language-ethnicity" link is gradually being torn apart in everyday consciousness reflecting the Buryats' self-assessment of their real linguistic competence in the ethnic language.
Tomsk Journal of Linguistics and Anthropology. 2024;(4):112-126
112-126
The Image of the Snake in Bashkir Toponymy
Abstract
Geographical names with the word ‘snake’ are common in Bashkir toponymy. This article aims to uncover the reasons for using such names and to shed light on their origins. The occurrence of snakes in certain habitats is the most important factor influencing the appearance of these names. River names associated with the image of a snake have a visual connection to the movements and appearance of a snake that can be observed. The image of a crawling or slithering snake reflects the popular perception of the flow of a river. Furthermore, the inclusion of snake imagery in toponymy can be traced back to ancient Bashkir beliefs and mythology, in which snakes play an important role. An analysis of the mythological material shows that the snake symbolizes the feminine principle, life, fertility, and bodies of water such as rivers and lakes. Consequently, ‘snake’ names are predominantly associated with bodies of water, with these geographical features being viewed both positively and negatively in the popular consciousness. Therefore, distinguishing between sacred and negative places in Bashkir toponymy is possible. According to Bashkir mythology, the snake, as a totem animal, serves as a guide through infinite space and can locate drinking water sources. As the snake is the totem of the Bashkir clan Yylan, it is reflected above all in Bashkir ethnohydronymy, especially in relation to sacred places. In Bashkir mythology, the snake stands for both life and death, which means that bodies of water named after it are associated with “negative” places. Derogatory names in Bashkir hydronyms are associated with symbols from Iranian mythology, such as Azhdaha, Azhi, and Azhai, which stand for dragons or monsters. These creatures are believed to inhabit lakes and swamps, making the water unsuitable for drinking. For this reason, these objects are classified as “negative” places in Bashkir toponymy.
Tomsk Journal of Linguistics and Anthropology. 2024;(4):23-30
23-30
The Proto-Yeniseian ‘Mammoth’ and the Iconography of Okunevo
Abstract
The article examines the ideas of the mammoth in the traditions of the Siberian peoples, with special attention to the image of the mammoth-horned fish known to the Kets, Selkups, Ob-Ugrians, and Evenkis. The word for ‘mammoth fish’ has been reliably reconstructed for the Yenician proto-language (*čer), and the Yeniseian name of this mythological being has been borrowed into the Turkic languages of Southern Siberia and the Evenks. This root has a deeper Proto-Sino-Caucasian etymology with parallels in the meaning ‘worm,’ ‘lizard,’ ‘snail,’ etc. In the mythology of the Sino-Caucasian peoples who are linguistically distantly related to Yeniseian (Chinese, Burish, and their neighbors, etc.), a mythologeme is known about the transformation of an animal from the fish-lizard-snake class into a dragon-like creature. These data are used to reconstruct the appearance of the mammoth-fish image among the speakers of the Proto-Yeniseian language after their advance into Siberia on the basis of older Sino-Caucasian mythological traditions. In the iconography of the Okunev archeological culture, there are images of ichthyomorphs that are structurally, compositionally, and in detail similar to the images of the mammoth fish among the peoples of Siberia, which shows parallels with the above-mentioned mythologems and the development of the image of the mammoth fish in the spiritual culture of the speakers of the Proto-Yeniseian language. In addition, the overall composition of Okunev’s stelae shows striking structural similarities with the composition of the sacred iconography of Ket, including images of lizards, grave signs, and shamanistic symbols. These parallels have no equivalent in the culture of other peoples of Siberia and should be explained in the context of the development of the Proto-Yeniseian language and mythology. Some iconographic parallels exist in the Ket tradition and in the art of other Siberian cultures in the Okunevo region (especially the Samuś culture). In this respect, there is reason to believe that speakers of the early Proto-Yeniseian language were involved in the formation of the Okunevo culture. The data from physical anthropology and genetics confirm the latter thesis.
Tomsk Journal of Linguistics and Anthropology. 2024;(4):127-142
127-142
Visual Folkloristics: From Video Recording to Complex Research
Abstract
The article is dedicated to the methodological problems of visual folkloristics. The article justifies the necessity of its separation into a sub-discipline of visual anthropology and classical folklore studies. According to the author, the language of cinema is the semiotic system capable of capturing such a complex cultural phenomenon as a folkloristic work as completely, adequately, and accurately as possible. The importance of the non-verbal and extra-musical aspects of the performance, which are lost in text or audio recordings, is emphasized. The article is based on the field material collected by the author during folkloristic-ethnographic expeditions in different regions of Siberia. Examples are given of video recordings of such complex rituals as the Bear Festival and the honoring of family patron spirits among the Khanty, shamanic initiation among the Buryats, and the Altai calendar ritual Jazhyl bӱr (‘Green Leaves’). Practical recommendations are given for the choice of this or that recording method in different situations. The relevance of recording rituals with two cameras and the continuous recording method is justified. The problem of subsequent editing of the filmed material – various editing options depending on the task and target audience and the analysis of the existing video material from the point of view of various scientific disciplines (ethnography, linguistics, folklore, musicology, choreography) is considered separately. The author believes that the joint viewing of folklore videos with informants can serve as a “catalyst” for the creative activity of performers and can be used for this purpose in field research. The end result of a visual folklorist’s work can be a folklore film, a multimedia disk, a database stored online, illustrations for articles and academic reports, and educational materials for school and university students. Another issue is the copyright of the video material, which should be clarified at least through a verbal agreement with the informant, respecting all his wishes regarding confidential information. The author concludes that only integrated digital video and audio recordings can provide the necessary level of completeness and adequacy to capture such a multidimensional phenomenon as folklore and that audiovisual folklore has already developed its own tasks and methods to solve them, moving from the level of recording the performance of a folkloristic work to the level of its complex interdisciplinary study.
Tomsk Journal of Linguistics and Anthropology. 2024;(4):143-152
143-152