Nº 11 (2025)
Articles
The development of nosological classifications in the context of the social construction of scientific facts problem
Resumo
Western medicine, having gone through the historical path of becoming scientific knowledge, found itself included in epistemological discussions on the nature of scientific fact, the process of cognition social context and the organization of science as a social institution. The purpose of the article is to answer the question of what the construction of a scientific fact is, when we discuss the history of medicine as a science and specifically the development of nosological classification principles. Methodologically, the work is based on the constructivist paradigm of the philosophy and sociology of science. Furthermore, the logic of the practical turn in the humanities and an interdisciplinary approach are relevant to this study. The study analyzes two key texts related to the constructivist tradition: L. Fleck’s “The Genesis and Development of Scientific Fact” and M. Foucault’s “The Birth of the Clinic”. The result of the analysis is a description of the development of medicine in the perspective of a constructivist epistemological paradigm. Fleck wrote about how understanding disease depends on a culture's style of scientific thinking. Foucault's work allows us to confirm the hypothesis that the nosological construct of a disease is formed under the influence of certain institutions, such as the clinic. The clinic structures the hospital space by analogy with the laboratory space and places the disease phenomenon into the cells of the nosological classification created as a result of practical actions. The constructivist approach to medical knowledge also allowed us to consider the ICD system as an epiphenomenon of the development of clinical thinking in the era of biopolitics and to explicate the logic of the conflict around the transition from ICD-10 to ICD-11, the effect of differences in value horizons influencing the styles of scientific thinking.
Philosophical thought. 2025;(11):1-16
1-16
Conceptualization of memory within the framework of cognitive systems theory
Resumo
The subject of this research is the formation of generalized concepts of memory systems. Memory systems are analyzed in the context of various representations: within and beyond the informational model of consciousness; within management systems of objects with varying degrees of stability, including real-time systems; as an element of the actor model of cognitive systems. Significant attention is paid to analyzing existing and prospective representations of the cognitive model of memory, which includes principles of learning, memory retention, memory updating, forgetting, and the mechanism of multi-system integration of knowledge in memory, which provides cognitive intellectual systems with the ability to comprehend knowledge through its integration into a complex of existing representations, as well as facilitating creative intellectual activities—creativity. The research methodology is based on considering memory within the framework of various representations formed in system theory, algorithm theory, and cognitive system theory. The foundation of the comprehensive analysis of memory is the definition of memory within the informational concept of consciousness, supplemented by a definition of the non-informational components of memory. The research presented in the article revealed the inseparable connection between a system's memory and its changes over time. The adequacy of the representation of cognitive systems, including memory subsystems, within the framework of the actor model was established. Cognitive models of memory were defined, the practical realization of which is manifested in learning methodologies, including transfer learning, which serves as a precursor to the mechanism of multi-system integration of knowledge that underlies knowledge comprehension and creativity. An authorial interpretation of the complexity of cognitive systems and their memory subsystems was proposed, which includes temporal, spatial, and configurational complexities, and the possibilities for increasing memory efficiency by reducing its complexity while maintaining functionality were discussed. Priority mechanisms for enhancing the effectiveness of memory management processes were identified. The scientific novelty of the research lies in forming a holistic understanding of the formation, content, functioning, and interconnections of memory subsystems within cognitive systems, based on which directions for their further development and improvement can be determined. As a result of the research, it was established that memory is a key component of cognitive systems, determining the stability and continuity of their changes over time, as well as setting fundamental limits on the expansion of knowledge that cognitive systems can operate with.
Philosophical thought. 2025;(11):17-35
17-35
The nature of the fear of death, as well as whether it is possible to overcome these experiences
Resumo
The article discusses the phenomenon of fear of death and the possibility of reducing or overcoming this fear. The existing psychological explanations of this phenomenon are considered by the author but seem insufficient to him. He proposes to examine the fear of death within the framework of the schemology concept he developed, in which the main object is semiotic schemes. Several examples illustrate the author's understanding of the concept of "scheme" as a structure that contains a "problematic situation," a "new reality" that allows for understanding what is happening, and a "new action." The author shows the connection between the concept of a scheme and the concept of culture. Research shows that in culture, problematic situations arise, and "semiosis" is formed, the signs and knowledge of which a person uses to construct schemes (from a semiotic point of view, a scheme is a complex sign, and in relation to reality, it is knowledge). It is discussed why the fear of death was minimal in archaic culture and the culture of the Middle Ages, while in others, especially in modern times, it is at its maximum. This is primarily related to the fact that early cultures were based on spiritual practices that assumed the existence of immortal souls, whereas in modernity, such existence is denied by science. Nevertheless, individuals, even in modern European culture, as V.S. Bibler writes, can overcome social and cultural conditioning. An analysis is proposed, explaining within the framework of schemology how the change of a person's lifeworld and sensibility occurs. According to the author, these processes underlie the fear of death or its overcoming. He tries to show that the construction of schemes and the change of lifeworld entail a regrouping and restructuring of brain structures and neurons, but the latter cannot be considered the cause of schematization and the change of lifeworld, since this determination is mediated by the presence of such intermediaries as imagination, comprehension, and awareness.
Philosophical thought. 2025;(11):36-54
36-54
"Myth, ritual, discourse: mechanisms of constructing political habitus in everyday practices (using the example of the Soviet legacy)"
Resumo
The object of the study is political habitus as a stable system of dispositions formed in everyday practices through rituals and discourse. The relevance of the work is determined by the need to understand the complex and contradictory processes in Russian socio-political life. At the same time, three interrelated elements play a key role in the mechanism of habit formation in the daily sphere: modern myth-making, rituals and discursive practices. Through their prism, the article explores how latent political attitudes and values are translated and fixed in the mass consciousness. In the study, these processes are analyzed using the example of the return of the Soviet legacy to Russian socio-political practice. In modern conditions, the specificity of these processes lies in the active mobilization of symbolic capital of the Soviet era to legitimize the current political order and consolidate society. Thus, the subject of the analysis is the mechanisms of constructing this habitus through the triad "myth-ritual-discourse", studied on the basis of the reception of the Soviet heritage. The theoretical and methodological basis of the article is the concept of habitus P. Bourdieu, as well as approaches to the study of political mythology and performative practices. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the proposed analytical tools that allow us to consider the construction of political habitus not through the prism of institutional politics, but through the triad of "myth-ritual-discourse" in everyday practices. Using the example of the reception of the Soviet heritage, it is clearly demonstrated how the reactualization of mythologies and rituals of a bygone era takes place. The main conclusions of the work show that the symbolic capital of the Soviet period is actively used in modern Russia to form an integral political habitus. The analysis shows that it is through routine everyday practices such as the use of specific vocabulary, participation in rituals, or consumption of media products that the mass consciousness learns key political dispositions. Thus, myth, ritual, and discourse are key mechanisms for the incorporation of the "Soviet" as an unreflected scheme of perception and action into the structures of modern political consciousness and behavior.
Philosophical thought. 2025;(11):55-67
55-67
From Philosophical Concepts to Psychoanalytic Practice: An Analysis of the Epistolary Legacy of Lou Andreas-Salomé in Interaction with Sigmund and Anna Freud
Resumo
The article examines the philosophical and scientific legacy of Lou Andreas-Salomé, her contribution to the development of psychoanalysis, and her role in the intellectual life of early 20th century Europe. Special attention is given to the analysis of her correspondence with Sigmund and Anna Freud. The aim of the article is to reveal the role of Lou Andreas-Salomé in the development of psychoanalytic thought and to explore the nature of her relationships with the Freuds. The results of the study demonstrate the unique nature of Salomé's relationships with the Freuds and her contribution to the development of psychoanalytic theory, particularly in the study of the creative process. Salomé views narcissism as a source of creativity and sublimation as a way of transforming internal energy into artistic creation, paying special attention to the concept of the artist as an explorer of their own "self." The methodology of the study is based on a hermeneutic-interpretative approach and includes an analysis of correspondence, biographical materials, and Salomé's psychoanalytic works. The scientific novelty lies in the comprehensive analysis of Salomé's correspondence with the Freuds, revealing little-known aspects of the development of psychoanalysis and the role of women in the intellectual life of the early 20th century. The practical significance of the work lies in the potential application of the findings in further research on the history of psychoanalysis, the intellectual history of women, and epistolary culture. The conclusions of the study indicate that Lou Andreas-Salomé's contribution to the history of psychoanalysis extends beyond the role of "muse" and includes original scientific ideas. The studied correspondence between Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud, and Lou Andreas-Salomé is a historical document that sheds light on the development of psychoanalytic thought and forms a unique triangle in the history of philosophy and psychoanalysis, deserving further conceptual reading.
Philosophical thought. 2025;(11):68-81
68-81
The polyphonic principle and the deconstruction of subjectivity: the aporias of postmodern multiplicity.
Resumo
This paper undertakes a systematic investigation of the critical limits and internal contradictions of the polyphonic principle in postmodern philosophy. The category of polyphony, borrowed by Bakhtin from the musical tradition and developed by post-structuralism, is reconsidered in terms of its aporetic structures. The focus is on the deconstruction of the Cartesian subject and the transformation of understanding subjectivity from cogito to a model of a resonant field of multiple processes. Three interrelated dimensions of this transformation are examined: temporal (Derridean analysis of auto-affection, Deleuzian syntheses of time), affective (Spinozist philosophy of affects, Foucauldian techniques of the self), and evental (Deleuzian concept of pre-individual singularities). The article analyzes the reconceptualization of the individual/collective opposition through the Deleuzo-Guattarian concept of collective machines of enunciation, Negri and Hardt's notion of multitude, and Simondon's theory of individuation. Ethical implications of the polyphonic principle are considered: Levinasian ethics of the face, Derridean concept of aporetic decision, and Lyotardian differend. The research employs an aporetic method of analysis integrating Derrida's deconstructive strategy, Deleuzian analysis of multiplicity, and Levinasian phenomenology of alterity. The scientific novelty lies in systematic exposition of three fundamental aporias: self-foundation (universality of critique of universality), communication (incommensurability of language games), and criteria (evaluation without transcendent foundations). It is demonstrated that these aporias represent not external obstacles but productive tensions constituting the dynamism of polyphonic thinking. The concept of resonant relations is developed as an alternative to the translation model, and a strategy of immanent validation is proposed. It is shown that the polyphonic principle transforms subjectivity from substantial subject to evental crystallization in force fields. It is established that the task of polyphonic philosophy consists not in overcoming aporias but in developing ways of productive work with them, opening new perspectives for post-foundationalist thought in political philosophy, ethics, and epistemology.
Philosophical thought. 2025;(11):82-92
82-92
Gilbert Simondon and the Genealogy of Speculative Realism: Ontology of the "Pre-Individual"
Resumo
The philosophical project of Gilbert Simondon, long remaining obscure, today emerges as a key link in the genealogy of the contemporary speculative turn. This article demonstrates that the ontology developed by Simondon of the "pre-individual" – a metastable field of virtual potentials that precedes any formed individuality – represents a radical challenge to anthropocentric correlationalism. Through the lens of individuation processes, his thought allows for the articulation of reality as independent of human access, thus anticipating the central pathos of speculative realism in overcoming Kant's "Copernican Revolution." Simondon's analysis of technical objects and non-human forms of life offers a concrete phenomenology of the "world-without-us," serving as a bridge between speculative theory and empirical research, and finds direct continuation in four main branches of speculative realism: Meillassoux's speculative materialism, Harman's object-oriented ontology, Grant's transcendental materialism, and Brassier's transcendental nihilism. The methodological approach of the research is based on the consistent application of genealogical and comparative-analytical methods. These methods are used for systematic comparison and ontological modeling of Simondon's positions with the works of key representatives of speculative realism (Harman, Meillassoux, Grant). This allows for the conceptualization of the ontology of the "pre-individual" as the foundation for a non-anthropocentric realism that transcends the limitations of correlationalism. Such a comprehensive approach not only establishes historical-philosophical continuity but also reveals the heuristic potential of the concept of the "pre-individual" for addressing the problems posed by speculative realism. The relevance and novelty of the research lie in the systematic comparison of the concept of the "pre-individual" with various projects of speculative realism, united by a critique of correlationalism but diverging in its overcoming. While traditional interpretations see in Simondon primarily a philosopher of technology and culture, this work reveals him as a major precursor of non-human ontology. This reinterpretation not only clarifies the origins of the very "speculative impulse" of the 21st century but also uncovers in Simondon's legacy an undervalued resource for philosophical reflection on contemporary issues – from ecology and technology to the question of the status of non-human actors. The novelty of the approach lies in demonstrating how Simondon's ontology of process offers an alternative to both correlationalism and rigid schemes of speculative metaphysics, opening the way to a dynamic and polymorphic understanding of reality through the principles of individuation, metastability, and transduction.
Philosophical thought. 2025;(11):93-114
93-114
Existential and social issues in contemporary architecture: ways to overcome loneliness and social isolation
Resumo
To this day, the problem of loneliness and social isolation in urban environments has become particularly acute in the context of changing lifestyles, digitalization, and the loss of traditional forms of neighborhood communication. Urbanization, digitalization, uniform development, and a lack of quality public spaces significantly reduce opportunities for establishing and maintaining social connections. In this regard, the subject of research is the influence of architecture on the level of loneliness and social isolation. The aim of this article is to analyze the relationship between the architectural environment and social isolation, followed by the development of recommendations for designing inclusive urban spaces. Considering architecture as a factor in social interactions, special attention is paid to the balance between private and public spaces, as well as the principles of inclusive design. The research methodology is based on the sequential application of elements of the historical approach, historical and art criticism analysis, hermeneutic method, comparative analysis methods, theoretical synthesis, case method (analysis of specific architectural solutions and urban planning practices), as well as visual analysis of certain public spaces and design solutions that influence social engagement. The novelty of the research lies in the author's approach, through which: 1) architecture is considered a socio-existential tool that affects the quality of human interactions in the urban environment; 2) definitions of "loneliness" and "social isolation" are provided; 3) the understanding of the interdisciplinary nature of architecture is generalized and expanded, connecting philosophical, sociological, art criticism, and design approaches to the urban environment. The theoretical foundation of the article can be used for further research in the field of social urbanism. The practical significance of the research lies in the proposed author's recommendations, which can be applied in the development of urban environment projects, residential complexes, and public spaces, as well as in educational activities for training specialists in the field of architecture and urban planning. It is noted that the spatial solutions made today define not only the visual appearance of the environment but also the quality of life, the degree of participation, solidarity, and the sense of belonging of individuals to society. Since architecture significantly influences the formation of the socio-spatial fabric of the city, it should account for the needs of all population groups in the future, ensuring accessibility, safety, and variability of space usage.
Philosophical thought. 2025;(11):115-137
115-137
Transformation of the connection between norm and duty in the era of artificial intelligence technologies.
Resumo
Globalization, digitalization, and the escalation of communications are currently rapidly transforming social connections and patterns. Moreover, the multi-layered virtual slices of social existence effectively blur the boundaries between the society in which the subject lives and the anticipated society of the future. AI technologies determine the constant variability of the foundations of modern human identity. This complicates the perception of norms by individuals and brings the issues of obligation in action to the forefront. The subject of this research article is the transformed correlation between norms and obligations in the behavior of individuals in the age of computer technologies. The aim of the analysis is to prove the thesis that a norm is not just the potential for effective inclusion in various social processes, but a peculiar point of bifurcation from which many directions of behavioral strategy for the modern social subject can vectorially diverge. The achievement of this aim relies on solving the main task: to trace the "eternity" of the relationship between norms and obligations in human activities despite trends to question this relationship. The theoretical foundation is based on the philosophical experience of studying norms within the system of social relations. The leading methodological basis of this research is the structural-genetic approach, while a systemic-structural approach has been used to organize the material in the study. In addressing certain tasks aimed at this goal, principles of phenomenological methodology are employed—the principle of intentionality of consciousness and the principle of presuppositionless description of transformations of norms in culture to determine the evolution of changes in their semantics and form. As a result of the conducted research in the context of the expanding sphere of artificial intelligence technologies, a trend towards the disconnection of norms from individuals and a transformation in the perception of the sense of duty has been traced. The position of classical metaphysics regarding the possibility of timeless good, good as a guarantor of the normative component of human action, has been criticized. Through the analysis of the norm of mutuality, a conclusive finding has been made about the impossibility of eliminating normativity from the system of social relations. Delegating certain functions to AI technologies does not exempt individuals from responsibility, which is directly associated with the correlation between norms and obligations. The illusion of the possibility of delegating the sphere of social normativity to these technologies is caused by the fact that in rapidly changing forms of social relations, individuals do not always identify adaptive norms, as they are still in the process of formation.
Philosophical thought. 2025;(11):138-146
138-146
Perfecting the body, ennobling the senses, and educating the mind: about ideal model of inculturation in early Modern period
Resumo
In the early Modern period, many utopias and projects emerged in which humanists revisited medieval practices of inculturation. The subject of the study is the European Renaissance ideal of early Modern inculturation. The focus is on the analysis of the humanistic model of inculturation, presented holistically in Baltasar Castiglione's polylogue book "The Courtier". The courtiers are arguing about: the requirement for a courtier to practice the arts and philosophy; the need for equal education for a lady; the goal of inculturating an courtier (a mentor to a ruler); the idea of the identity of the beautiful, the good and the useful; the neoplatonic ascent of the soul from the changing to the unchanging true, from darkness ignorance leads to enlightenment. The research methodology is based on an institutional approach to inculturation; a comparative method and analysis of discourse, which made it possible to compare diverse discourses and points of view of courtiers, which both complement each other and enter into polemics, including appealing to medieval and ancient philosophy. The author's interpretation of the ideal Renaissance model of inculturation is proposed, which combines the Christian-Platonic understanding of virtue, divine love and harmony with the ancient philosophical and civic ideal of kalokagatia and Paideia. The goal of inculturation is virtue, a happy life and the prosperity of the state, which is possible if the courtier devotes himself to management, is perfect and experienced enough to become a mentor to the ruler. The handwritten book gained popularity among the rulers, aristocracy and nobles of Europe before its publication (1528). It laid down the principles of the modern education system, including harmonious comprehensive personal development and equal opportunities, thanks to which the results of the research can be used in the development of modern models of inculturation, based on the humanistic tradition.
Philosophical thought. 2025;(11):147-160
147-160
Beyond Algorithms: The Philosophical Critique of Hubert Dreyfus
Resumo
The present article is dedicated to a philosophical analysis of the criticism put forward by Hubert Dreyfus against traditional concepts of artificial intelligence (AI). It focuses on a detailed exposition of Dreyfus's arguments regarding the fundamental limitations of the symbolic approach in AI, which reduces human thinking to formalized algorithmic structures. The study examines key works by Dreyfus, such as "Alchemy and AI" and "What Computers Can't Do," as well as his reference to the phenomenological tradition represented by Heidegger and Merleau-Ponty. Special attention is given to the critique of the rationalist assumptions underlying contemporary AI. The study emphasizes Dreyfus's assertion that human intelligence cannot be reduced to computational systems, as it is conditioned by the importance of unconscious mechanisms, bodily experience, and sociocultural context in the process of cognition. The methodology includes a philosophical analysis of Dreyfus's key works, a deconstruction of rationalist and functionalist concepts of AI, and a comparison of the symbolic approach with alternative paradigms (neural networks, embodied cognition theory). Hermeneutic and phenomenological methods are used to reveal the ontological and epistemological foundations of the critique. The scientific novelty of this research manifests in the deep systematization and theoretical understanding of Dreyfus's critical positions against traditional paradigms of classical artificial intelligence. At the center of the analysis is his five-stage model of skill acquisition—the journey from novice to expert—which reveals the transformation of cognitive processes from formalized algorithmic thinking to intuitively-based understanding. The inherent non-formalizability of common sense and professional expertise is justified, as they have their roots in bodily-oriented experience and the historical-social acculturation of the subject. The conclusion emphasizes the need to shift research priorities in the field of AI from purely symbolic methods to hybrid cognitive systems capable of integrating existential, cultural, and empirical dimensions of human existence. Dreyfus's critical discourse urges a rethinking of technocratic practices in the creation of intelligent systems and stimulates the introduction of philosophical categories and methodologies into the core development of future intelligent technologies.
Philosophical thought. 2025;(11):161-178
161-178
Overcoming the Gap: Gilbert Simondon's Philosophy of Technology Between Determinism and Constructivism
Resumo
The philosophy of technology by Gilbert Simondon occupies a unique position in the contemporary intellectual landscape, finding itself at the epicenter of a key and still unresolved contradiction in the social study of technology. On one hand, by recognizing the immanent logic of technical evolution through the concept of "concretization," it inherits the intuitions of technological determinism. On the other hand, by introducing the concepts of "associated milieu" and "information" as elements that initiate the process of "individuation," it opens up space for social influence, aligning itself with constructivism. The relevance of this research lies in overcoming this deadlock dichotomy that paralyzes both theoretical thought and technological policy, forcing a choice between technocracy and relativism. This article argues that it is this apparent paradox that makes Simondon's legacy exceptionally productive for synthesis. The methodological approach of the research is based on an interdisciplinary synthesis strategy aimed at bridging the gap between philosophical analysis of technology and empirical social studies. Its foundation consists of the integration of three key perspectives: historical-philosophical reconstruction, critical-theoretical interpretation, and sociocultural analysis of technologies. Specific research methods include: conceptual and comparative analysis and case studies. Thus, the methodology of the work is integrative in nature, aimed not at simple comparison of theories, but at developing a new conceptual language for the analysis and critique of contemporary technological processes. Such a synthetic approach allows for the formulation of the scientific novelty of the research, which consists in developing solid foundations for a radical technology policy based not on external moralization but on immanent technical rationality. By rethinking concretization as not merely a technical but a technosocial process, the article argues that democratic participation in technology formation is not an external imperative but an internal condition for genuinely progressive development, leading to greater integration between humans, machines, and nature. The symbiosis of Simondon's ideas with Marcuse's critical theory, which reveals the "potentiality" of technical development, creates a robust theoretical foundation for a policy aimed at overcoming alienation. As a result, democratic intervention in technological development receives a deep philosophical and technical justification: it appears not just as a moral choice but as a necessary condition for a truly rational and progressive path that actualizes the suppressed potentials of technology itself.
Philosophical thought. 2025;(11):179-199
179-199
The universe as a system and its scientific-philosophical reflection in the context of the rational theology of Thomas Aquinas.
Resumo
The present article presents the metaphysical concept of the universe as a rationally governed system, developed by the prominent medieval thinker Thomas Aquinas and presented by him as the fifth, so-called "cosmological" argument for the existence of God. In Volume II of "Summa Theologiae," in questions 103 "On the Governance of Things in General," 104 "On the Consequences of Divine Governance in Particular," and 105 "On the Change of Creation by God," Thomas Aquinas continues to explore the phenomenon of determinism in nature, relating the very principle of the interconnection of things to the attributes of the action of the Divine Mind. Aquinas's concept is entirely based on scientific methodology, which vividly demonstrates the non-contradictory application of a theological approach in scientific-theoretical research, making Thomas one of the leading scholars of his time. The methodology includes a set of general scientific theoretical research methods such as analysis and synthesis, formal and dialectical approaches. Also applied in this study is the systemic method and causal analysis. The results of the study: one of the fundamental concepts of Thomas Aquinas, the fifth argument for divine existence—"from the governance of things"—is analyzed; the rational-theological explanation by Thomas Aquinas of the origin of the universe and systematic governance as a means of organizing things in their relationships and causal links is considered. The principles of determinism, causality, and goal-setting in the universe are identified, and the degree of independence of the nature of things is determined. It is shown that God's creation of a certain independence for the nature of things and endowing them with the potential for natural self-revelation without any "miraculous" intervention allows for a deeper understanding of the perfection of the divine mind as a creative principle, to which it is hardly possible to attribute any soulless universal mechanism, "deism," or any fatal character in the governance of the world.
Philosophical thought. 2025;(11):200-216
200-216